Submission declined on 27 July 2024 by SafariScribe (talk). This submission is not adequately supported by reliable sources. Reliable sources are required so that information can be verified. If you need help with referencing, please see Referencing for beginners and Citing sources.
Where to get help
How to improve a draft
You can also browse Wikipedia:Featured articles and Wikipedia:Good articles to find examples of Wikipedia's best writing on topics similar to your proposed article. Improving your odds of a speedy review To improve your odds of a faster review, tag your draft with relevant WikiProject tags using the button below. This will let reviewers know a new draft has been submitted in their area of interest. For instance, if you wrote about a female astronomer, you would want to add the Biography, Astronomy, and Women scientists tags. Editor resources
| ![]() |
WD repeat containing protein 88 (WDR88) is a protein, which in humans, is encoded by the gene WDR88[1]. It consists of 7 WD40 repeats, which form a 7-bladed beta propeller. Mutations within the WDR88 gene are associated with a variety of cancers, as well as schizophrenia and fungal infections.
Type | Position | Base Change | Amino Acid Change | Associations | rsID | Label |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Missense | 103 | 365A-->G | H-->Q | Schizophrenia | exm1453333 | VarA |
Missense | 166 | 496G-->A | D-->N | 1483589630 | ||
Missense | 172 | 514T-->C | W-->R | 1973547431 | VarB | |
Missense | 173 | 517G-->C | D-->H | 2145383159 | ||
Missense | 195 | 583T-->G | S-->A | 964934511 | ||
Missense | 198 | 593G-->A | G-->D | 1973572567 | ||
Missense | 229 | 687C-->A, 687C-->T | H-->Q, = | 1390996134 | ||
Missense | 236 | 707G-->A | C-->Y | 1973627073 | VarC | |
Missense | 238 | 712T-->C | F-->L | 1315930267 | ||
Missense | 258 | 772G-->C | D-->V | 1350318862 | ||
Missense | 285 | 854G-->A | G-->D | 1973735806 | ||
Nonsense (stop gain) | 293 | 878G-->A, 879G-->A | W-->Ter | 766698986, 1454699628 | VarD/E | |
Missense | 300 | 898T-->C | W-->R | 1973736716 | ||
Nonsense (stop gain) | 300 | 900G-->A | W-->Ter | 1973736779 | VarF | |
Missense | 320 | 958C-->G, 958C-->T | H-->D, Y | 571091956 | ||
Missense | 322 | 964G-->A | G-->S | 938493076 | VarG | |
Missense | 327 | 979T-->C, 979T-->G | C-->R, G | 916309262 | ||
Missense | 332 | 995A-->G | D-->G | 1973739195 | ||
Missense | 339 | 1016G-->A | G-->R, E | 753069912, 138717522 | ||
Missense | 342 | 1024G-->C | D-->H | 1973845950 | ||
Missense | 348 | 1043G-->T | W-->L | 200178208 | ||
Missense | 362 | 1085A-->G | H-->R | 1213339071 | ||
Missense | 368 | 1103A-->G | D-->R | 1973916950 | VarH | |
Missense | 372 | 1115G-->T | S-->I | 11668547 | ||
Missense | 378 | 1188C-->T | I-->F | Schizophrenia | exm1453382 | VarI |
Missense | 383 | 1148A-->G | K-->R | 768741120 | ||
Missense | 386 | 1156A-->C | T-->P | 751290834 | VarJ | |
Missense | 390 | 1168T-->C, 1168T-->G | W-->R, G | 1291251743 | ||
Missense | 424 | 1328C>T | I-->A, G | Candidiasis | rs10422015 | |
Missense | 437 | 1311C-->G, 1311C-->T | C-->W, = | 760463708 | ||
Nonsense (stop lost) | 473 | 1417T-->C, G | Ter-->R, G | 760940871 | VarK | |
Nonsense (stop lost) | 473 | 1419A-->G | Ter -->W | 146733199 | VarL |
Gene
editThe WDR88 gene is on chromosome 19 at position 19q13.11 on the plus strand[3]. The gene is encoded from position 33,132,114 to 33,175,799[4]. It has 11 exons, and is approximately 1702 base pairs long[5]. Other genes in the gene neighborhood include: RHPN2 (rhophilin rho GTPase binding protein 2), LRP3 (low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 3), SLC7A10 (solute carrier family 7 membrane 10), and GPATCH1 (G-patch domain containing 1)[6]. The WDR88 gene may also be referred to as PQWD (PQQ repeat containing and WD repeat containing gene).
Transcripts
editThe gene WDR88 has 3 isoforms[7]. The splice variants of the WDR88 transcript vary according to their first and last exon and their last two exons. This isoform (aAug10) has an mRNA sequence of 1702 nucleotides.
mRNA Variant | Gene Length | Protein Length | 5' UTR | 3' UTR |
---|---|---|---|---|
aAug10 | 1702 | 472 | 56 | 227 |
bAug10 | 1835 | 426 | 78 | 476 |
cAug10-unspliced | 561 | 121 | - | 195 |
Tissue Expression
editWDR88 RNA is expressed lowly and ubiquitously in most tissue types. It is expressed in slightly higher levels in the prostate, thyroid, thymus, and salivary gland[8][9]. Its presence in these tissues may relate to associated diseases- WDR88 has been associated with prostate cancer, as well as an increased susceptibility of Candidiasis (which may also be associated with cancer of the salivary gland). Thymus cell dysfunction may also lead to cancer (including prostate cancer)[10].
Other tissues with moderate expression include the heart, skeletal muscle, brain, kidney, lymph nodes, and ovaries[11].
Protein
editThe WDR88 protein is a nuclear protein[12]. The protein is 472 amino acids long and has a calculated molecular weight of 53kDa. Its isoelectric point is approximately a pH of 7.0[13][14]. In addition, there is an increased abundance of cysteine, aspartic acid, and serine residues[15]. Its increased abundance of serine may contribute to its ability to be hyperphosphorylated. Human WDR88 displays a somewhat similar and isoelectric point to selected orthologs.
Species Type | Common Name | Scientific Name | Molecular Weight (kDa) | Isoelectric Point |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mammals | Human | Homo sapiens | 53 | 7.0 |
Mammals | Koala | Phascolarctos cinereus | 48 | 6.3 |
Mammals | Large flying fox bat | Pteropus vampyrus | 55 | 6.7 |
Mammals | Small madagascar hedgehog | Echinops telfairi | 54 | 8.9 |
Mammals | Australian echidna | Tachyglossus aculeatus | 47 | 8.2 |
Mammals | Cattle | Bos taurus | 63 | 6.7 |
Birds | South African ostrich | Struthio camelus australis | 44 | 7.2 |
Birds | Barn owl | Tyto alba | 44 | 5.9 |
Birds | Emperor penguin | Aptenodytes forsteri | 52 | 6.5 |
Reptiles | Chinese soft shelled turtle | Pelodiscus sinensis | 46 | 5.9 |
Reptiles | Australian saltwater crocodile | Crocodylus porosus | 45 | 6.0 |
Reptiles | Komodo Dragon | Varanus komodoensis | 44 | 6.1 |
Reptiles | European leaf toed gecko | Euleptes europaea | 48 | 8.9 |
Reptiles | Tiger rattlesnake | Crotalus tigris | 44 | 5.7 |
Amphibians | Common frog | Rana temporaria | 44 | 6.1 |
Amphibians | Common toad | Bufo bufo | 44 | 6.9 |
Amphibians | Two-lined aecilian | Rhinatrema bivittatum | 75 | 6.0 |
Fish | W. African Lungfish | Protopterus annectens | 44 | 5.6 |
Fish | Thorny Skate | Amblyraja radiata | 44 | 5.6 |
Fish | Sea Lamprey | Petromyzon marinus | 47 | 9.0 |
Secondary Structure
editThe 5’ untranslated region is 56 base pairs long, and the 3’ untranslated region is 227 base pairs in length, spanning from base 1475 to 1702[16]. The 5’ UTR is predicted to have 1 stem loop, while the 3’ UTR can have as many as 4 stem loops, although its most stable structure has 2 stem loops[17].
Tertiary Structure
editThe WDR88 protein has 7 WD40 repeats each of which form an antiparallel blade, all together forming a beta propeller[18]. The presence of a 7-bladed beta propeller is generally conserved in orthologs from mammals to fish.
Transcript Level Regulation
editTranscription Factors
editNotable transcription factors include: Nr1h::Rxra, EBF1, and PLAG1. ZNFs (zinc finger proteins) and SOX (SRY-related HMG box) transcription factors are common.
Nr1h3::Rxra (Liver X receptor alpha, retinoid receptor X alpha) play a role in lipid metabolism, inflammation, and cholesterol homeostasis[19] . Dysregulation of these processes are implicated in prostate cancer progression. Decreased expression of this factor means pro-inflammatory gene expression can increase, leading to inflammation (a risk factor for prostate cancer). This factor can also interfere with androgen receptor pathways, which may influence androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell growth.
EBF1 (Early B-cell factor 1) may contribute to the development of schizophrenia through its role in neurodevelopment and immune system function[20] . Specifically, EBF1 can work with microRNAs to create regulatory loops to influence the onset and progression of schizophrenia.
PLAG1 (Pleomorphic adenoma gene 1) is associated with pleomorphic adenomas of the salivary gland. Chromosomal translocations of the target sequence can over-activate PLAG1, leading to an overactivation of downstream factors/targets that are involved in cell proliferation, leading to cancerous growths[21] . Cancer of the salivary gland can lead to dry mouth, which is a risk factor of Candidiasis (thrush) and other oral fungal infections.
microRNA
editmicroRNA (miRNA) binding sites are only found within the 3’ untranslated region[22]. Notably, the miRNA hsa-miR-191-5p is associated with various types of cancer due to its ability to act as an oncogene by promoting cell differentiation & migration[23].
Binding Proteins
editRNA binding protein binding regions are found within the 5’ and 3’ untranslated regions[24]. Notable examples within the 5' region include ELF4B (E74-like factor 4B) and RBMX proteins. RBMX specifically has the ability to repair DNA damage, and can suppress tumorigenicity/progression of bladder cancer[25]. ELF4B is important in cell growth and differentiation, and dysregulation in this interaction could lead to cancer[26].
The 3' UTR binding proteins include IGF2BP1 (Insulin-like Growth Factor 2 MRNA Binding Protein 1), PTBP1 (Polypyrimidine Tract Binding Protein 1), RBMX proteins, and KHSRP (KH-Type Splicing Regulatory Protein).
IGF2BP1 is known to regulate mRNA stability, splicing, and translation[27] . In the context of cancer, IGF2BP1 may impact tumor progression and metastasis by stabilizing oncogenic mRNAs and promoting cell proliferation.
PTBP1 (Polypyrimidine Tract Binding Protein 1) is known for its role in splicing regulation[28] . It may also influence the stability and translation of cancer-related transcripts, potentially contributing to cancer development.
KHSRP (KH-Type Splicing Regulatory Protein) is involved in the regulation of mRNA processing, including splicing and decay[29]. It has been implicated in the regulation of various cancer-related genes and may play a role in cancer progression.
Protein Level Regulation
editPost Translational Modifications
editThe WDR88 protein is predicted to be hyperphosphorylated, with an additional acetylation site and ubiquitination site[31][32][33]. The presence of multiple phosphorylation sites is conserved among orthologs. The WDR88 protein may also have N- and O-glycosylation sites[34][35].
Subcellular Location
editThe WDR88 protein is primarily located within the nucleus, with its location being conserved in orthologs[37].
Evolution
editParalogs
editWDR88 paralogs include WDR5 (WD repeat containing protein 5), APAF1 (Apoptotic protease activating factor 1), WDR38, PAF1 (Protease activating factor 1), and DAW1 (dynein assembly factor with WD repeats 1)[38].
Orthologs
editWDR88 in Homo sapiens is highly conserved. Its found in many vertebrate organisms, including other mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. It has not been identified in invertebrates[40]. Table 2 shows a selection of orthologs in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Many conserved regions fell within the WD repeat domain, and most WD dipeptides were conserved among close and distant orthologs.
Phylogeny & History
editThe WDR88 gene is evolving relatively quickly compared to cytochrome c and DAW1, but slower than the rate of fibrinogen alpha.
Interacting Proteins
editHuman WDR88 protein has notable interactions with the following proteins which are all associated with cell cycle regulation: KIA1429, FOS family proteins, NUDC, and WDR31. These interactions implicate human WDR88 in cell regulation processes[41].
WDR88 is also associated with argG (citrate-aspartate ligase), metE (cobalamin-independent methionine synthase), GATM (glycine amidinotransferase), and TYR (tyrosinase), which are in arginine, methionine, creatinine, and melanin synthesis (respectively)[42] .
WDR88 can also interact with proteins associated with the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which causes plague.
Clinical Significance
editIn uterine & endometrial carcinoma, the WDR88 gene may serve as a relevant biomarker, and could also be a potential therapeutic target[43]. In prostate cancer, WDR88 can function as a marker for onset[44]
There is a significant association between a WDR88 gene variant and increased susceptibility to Candidiasis, an oral fungal infection[45]. A single nucleotide polymorphism at position 1328 changes from a cytosine to a thymine, causing an isoleucine to mutation to an alanine at position 424.
Exome array data showed 7 rare WDR88 variants contribute to the “genetic architecture of schizophrenia”[46]. 2 of these variants are predicted to be damaging or possibly damaging.
-
Part 1 of 3 of a conceptual translation of human WDR88 protein (isoform 1)
-
Part 2 of 3 of a conceptual translation of human WDR88 protein (isoform 1)
-
Part 3 of 3 of a conceptual translation of human WDR88 protein (isoform 1)
-
Variant Key for Conceptual Translation of Human WDR88
- ^ [Homo sapiens WD repeat domain 88 (WDR88), transcript variant 1, mRNA - Nucleotide - NCBI (nih.gov)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/NM_032319.3)
- ^ [GeneCards: WDR88 - Gene Details](https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=WDR88)
- ^ [AceView: Gene:WDR88, a comprehensive annotation of human, mouse and worm genes with mRNAs or ESTsAceView. (nih.gov)](https://aceview.genomics.org/)
- ^ [Human hg38 chr19:33132114-33175799 UCSC Genome Browser v467](https://genome.ucsc.edu/)
- ^ [Homo sapiens WD repeat domain 88 (WDR88), transcript variant 1, mRNA - Nucleotide - NCBI (nih.gov)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/NM_032319.3)
- ^ [WDR88 WD repeat domain 88 [Homo sapiens (human)] - Gene - NCBI (nih.gov)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/27251)
- ^ [AceView: Gene:WDR88, a comprehensive annotation of human, mouse and worm genes with mRNAs or ESTsAceView. (nih.gov)](https://aceview.genomics.org/)
- ^ [WD repeat-containing protein 88 [Homo sapiens] - Protein - NCBI (nih.gov)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/NP_114571.1)
- ^ [GDS3113 / 224297 (nih.gov)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gds/?term=GDS3113%20%2F%20224297)
- ^ Borodin, Y. I., Lomshakov, A. A., Astashov, V. V., Kazakov, O. V., Mayorov, A. P., & Larionov, P. M. (2014). Thymus in experimental carcinogenesis of the prostate gland. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 157, 724–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10517-014-2647-4
- ^ [GDS3113 / 224297 (nih.gov)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gds/?term=GDS3113%20%2F%20224297)
- ^ [PSORT: Protein Subcellular Localization Prediction Tool (genscript.com)](https://www.genescript.com/psort.html)
- ^ [WD repeat-containing protein 88 [Homo sapiens] - Protein - NCBI (nih.gov)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/NP_114571.1)
- ^ [Expasy - Compute pI/Mw tool](https://web.expasy.org/compute_pi/)
- ^ [ebi.ac.uk/jdispatcher/seqstats/saps](https://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/seqstats/saps/)
- ^ [WD repeat-containing protein 88 [Homo sapiens] - Protein - NCBI (nih.gov)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/NP_114571.1)
- ^ [RNA Folding Form (unafold.org)](https://unafold.rna.albany.edu/?q=RNA-Folding-Form)
- ^ [WD repeat-containing protein 88 [Homo sapiens] - Protein - NCBI (nih.gov)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/NP_114571.1)
- ^ Silva, K.C.S.; Tambwe, N.; Mahfouz, D.H.; Wium, M.; Cacciatore, S.; Paccez, J.D.; Zerbini, L.F. (2024). "Transcription Factors in Prostate Cancer: Insights for Disease Development and Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches". Genes, 15, 450. [1](https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15040450)
- ^ Guo, AY.; Sun, J.; Jia, P.; et al. (2010). "A Novel microRNA and transcription factor mediated regulatory network in schizophrenia". BMC Systems Biology, 4, 10. [2](https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-0509-4-10)
- ^ Wang, Y.; Shang, W.; Lei, X.; et al. (2013). "Opposing functions of PLAG1 in pleomorphic adenoma: a microarray analysis of PLAG1 transgenic mice". Biotechnology Letters, 35, 1377–1385. [3](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-013-1213-7)
- ^ [miRDB - Custom Prediction](http://mirdb.org/miRDB/)
- ^ Persson, H., Kvist, A., Rego, N., Staaf, J., Vallon-Christensson, J., Lutts, L., Loman, N., Jonsson, G., Naya, H., Hoglund, M., Borg, A., Rovira, C. (2011). Identification of New MicroRNAs in Paired Normal and Tumor Breast Tissue Suggests a Dual Role for the ERBB2/Her2 Gene. Molecular and Cellular Pathobiology, 71(1), 71-86. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-10-1869
- ^ [RBPDB: The database of RNA-binding specificities (utoronto.ca)](https://rbpdb.ccbr.utoronto.ca/)
- ^ The role of mitochondria in cancer therapy: a review. Nature Reviews Cancer (2021). [4](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41388-021-01666-z)
- ^ Sonenberg, Nahum; Gingras, Anne-Claude (1998). "The mRNA 5′ cap-binding protein eIF4E and control of cell growth". Current Opinion in Cell Biology, 10 (2), 268–275.
- ^ Glaß, Markus; Misiak, Danny; Bley, Nadine; Müller, Simon; Hagemann, Sven; Busch, Bianca; Rausch, Alexander; Hüttelmaier, Stefan (2021). "IGF2BP1, a Conserved Regulator of RNA Turnover in Cancer". Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences, Volume 8, Section RNA Networks and Biology. [5](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2021.632219)
- ^ Guo, Jihua; Jia, Jun; Jia, Rong (2015). "PTBP1 and PTBP2 impaired autoregulation of SRSF3 in cancer cells". Scientific Reports, 5, Article 14548. [6](https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14548)
- ^ Adamson, Britt; Smogorzewska, Agata; Sigoillot, Frederic D.; King, Randall W.; Elledge, Stephen J. (2012). "A genome-wide homologous recombination screen identifies the RNA-binding protein RBMX as a component of the DNA-damage response". Nature Cell Biology, 14, pp. 318–328.
- ^ "BioCuckoo". [7](http://ibs.biocuckoo.org/online.php). Accessed on 27 July 2024.
- ^ [ELM - unknown](https://elm.eu.org/)
- ^ [ELM - search the eukaryotic linear motif resource](https://elm.eu.org/)
- ^ [Motif Scan (sib.swiss)](https://www.expasy.org/tools/motif_scan)
- ^ [NetNGlyc 1.0 - DTU Health Tech - Bioinformatic Services](https://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/NetNGlyc/)
- ^ [DictyOGlyc 1.1 - DTU Health Tech - Bioinformatic Services](https://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/DictyOGlyc/)
- ^ [WDR88 Polyclonal Antibody (PA5-98512) (thermofisher.com)](https://www.thermofisher.com/order/catalog/product/PA5-98512)
- ^ [PSORT: Protein Subcellular Localization Prediction Tool (genscript.com)](https://www.genescript.com/psort.html)
- ^ [Protein BLAST: search protein databases using a protein query (nih.gov)](https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi)
- ^ "Phylogeny.fr Simple Phylogeny". phylogeny.fr. Retrieved 2024-07-27.
- ^ [Protein BLAST: search protein databases using a protein query (nih.gov)](https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi)
- ^ [PSICQUIC View (ebi.ac.uk)](https://www.ebi.ac.uk/psicquic)
- ^ "IntAct - Search Results". ebi.ac.uk. Retrieved 2024-07-27.
- ^ Chetverina, D., Vorobyeva, N. E., Gyorffy, B., Shtil, A. A., & Erokhin, M. (2023). Analyses of genes critical to tumor survival reveal potential ‘supertargets’: Focus on transcription. Cancers, 15(11), 3042. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15113042
- ^ Jaiswal, R., Jauhari, S., & Rizvi, S. A. M. (n.d.). WDR88, CCDC11, and ARPP21 genes indulge profoundly in the desmoplastic retort to prostate and breast cancer metastasis. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/178566
- ^ Jiang, L., Kerchberger, V. E., Shaffer, C. et al. (2022). Genome-wide association analyses of common infections in a large practice-based biobank. BMC Genomics, 23, 672. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-022-08888-9
- ^ Richards AL, Leonenko G, Walters JT, Kavanagh DH, Rees EG, Evans A, Chambert KD, Moran JL, Goldstein J, Neale BM, McCarroll SA, Pocklington AJ, Holmans PA, Owen MJ, O'Donovan MC. (2016). Exome arrays capture polygenic rare variant contributions to schizophrenia. Hum Mol Genet. 25(5):1001-7. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddv620. Epub 2016 Jan 5. PMID: 26740555; PMCID: PMC4754044