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The Jōmon period (縄文時代, Jōmon jidai) is the time in Japanese prehistory, traditionally dated between c. 14,000–300 BCE,[1] recently refined to about 1000 BCE,[2][3] during which Japan was inhabited by a hunter-gatherer culture, which reached a considerable degree of sedentism and cultural complexity. The name "cord-marked" was first applied by the American zoologist and orientalist Edward S. Morse, who discovered sherds of pottery in 1877 and subsequently translated it into Japanese as jōmon.[4] The pottery style characteristic of the first phases of Jōmon culture was decorated by impressing cords into the surface of wet clay and is generally accepted to be among the oldest in the world.[5]

The Jōmon period was rich in tools and jewellery made from bone, stone, shell and antler; pottery figurines and vessels; and lacquerware.[6][7][8][9] It is often compared to pre-Columbian cultures of the North American Pacific Northwest and especially to the Valdivia culture in Ecuador because in these settings cultural complexity developed within a primarily hunting-gathering context with limited use of horticulture.[10][11][12][13]

Chronology edit

The approximately 14,000 year Jōmon period is conventionally divided into several phases: Incipient (13,750-8,500 years ago), Initial (8,500–5,000), Early (5,000–3,520), Middle (3,520–2,470), Late (2,470–1,250), and Final (1,250–500), with each phase progressively shorter than the prior phase.[14] The fact that this entire period is given the same name by archaeologists should not be taken to mean that there was not considerable regional and temporal diversity; the time between the earliest Jōmon pottery and that of the more well-known Middle Jōmon period is about twice as long as the span separating the building of the Great Pyramid of Giza from the 21st century.

Dating of the Jōmon sub-phases is based primarily upon ceramic typology, and to a lesser extent radiocarbon dating.

Recent findings have refined the final phase of the Jōmon period to 1,000 BCE.[15][16][17] The Yayoi period started between 1,000 and 800 BCE according to radio-carbon evidence.[18][19][20]

Incipient and Initial Jōmon (13 750–5 000 BCE) edit

Traces of Paleolithic culture, mainly stone tools, occur in Japan from around 30 000 BP onwards.[21] The earliest "Incipient Jōmon" phase began while Japan was still linked to continental Asia as a narrow peninsula.[22] As the glaciers melted following the end of the last glacial period (approximately 12 000 BP), sea levels rose, separating the Japanese archipelago from the Asian mainland; the closest point (in Kyushu) about 190 kilometres (120 mi) from the Korean Peninsula is near enough to be intermittently influenced by continental developments, but far enough removed for the peoples of the Japanese islands to develop independently. In addition, Luzon, Taiwan, Ryukyu, and Kyushu constitute a continuous chain of islands, connecting the Jōmon with maritime Southeast Asia.

Within the archipelago, the vegetation was transformed by the end of the Ice Age. In southwestern Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, broadleaf evergreen trees dominated the forests, whereas broadleaf deciduous trees and conifers were common in northeastern Honshu and southern Hokkaido. Many native tree species, such as beeches, buckeyes, chestnuts, and oaks produced edible nuts and acorns. These provided substantial sources of food for both humans and animals.

In the northeast, the plentiful marine life carried south by the Oyashio Current, especially salmon, was another major food source. Settlements along both the Sea of Japan and the Pacific Ocean subsisted on immense amounts of shellfish, leaving distinctive middens (mounds of discarded shells and other refuse) that are now prized sources of information for archaeologists. Other food sources meriting special mention include Sika deer, wild boar (with possible wild-pig management[23]), wild plants such as yam-like tubers, and freshwater fish. Supported by the highly productive deciduous forests and an abundance of seafood, the population was concentrated in central and northern Honshu, but Jōmon sites range from Hokkaido to the Ryukyu Islands.

Earliest pottery edit

 
Incipient Jōmon pottery (14th–8th millennium BCE) Tokyo National Museum, Japan

The earliest pottery in Japan was made at or before the start of the Incipient Jōmon period. Small fragments, dated to 14 500 BCE, were found at the Odai Yamamoto I site in 1998. Pottery of roughly the same age was subsequently found at other sites such as Kamikuroiwa and Fukui Cave.[22][24][25]

Archaeologist Junko Habu claims "[t]he majority of Japanese scholars believed, and still believe, that pottery production was first invented in mainland Asia and subsequently introduced into the Japanese archipelago."[25] This seems to be confirmed by recent archaeology. As of now, the earliest pottery vessels in the world date back to 20 000 BP and were discovered in Xianren Cave in Jiangxi, China.[26][27] The pottery may have been used as cookware.[26] Other early pottery vessels include those excavated from the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China, dated from 16 000 BCE,[28] and at present it appears that pottery emerged at roughly the same time in Japan, and in the Amur River basin of the Russian Far East.[29][30]

The first Jōmon pottery is characterized by the cord-marking that gives the period its name and has now been found in large numbers of sites.[31] The pottery of the period has been classified by archaeologists into some 70 styles, with many more local varieties of the styles.[32] The antiquity of Jōmon pottery was first identified after World War II, through radiocarbon dating methods.[33][a] The earliest vessels were mostly smallish round-bottomed bowls 10–50 cm high that are assumed to have been used for boiling food and, perhaps, storing it beforehand. They belonged to hunter-gatherers and the size of the vessels may have been limited by a need for portability. As later bowls increase in size, this is taken to be a sign of an increasingly settled pattern of living. These types continued to develop, with increasingly elaborate patterns of decoration, undulating rims, and flat bottoms so that they could stand on a surface.[34]

The manufacture of pottery typically implies some form of sedentary life because pottery is heavy, bulky, and fragile and thus generally unusable for hunter-gatherers. However, this does not seem to have been the case with the first Jōmon people, who perhaps numbered 20 000 individuals over the whole archipelago.[22] It seems that food sources were so abundant in the natural environment of the Japanese islands that it could support fairly large, semi-sedentary populations. The Jōmon people used chipped stone tools, ground stone tools, traps, and bows, and were evidently skillful coastal and deep-water fishermen.

Early agriculture edit

The degree to which horticulture or small-scale agriculture was practiced by Jōmon people is debated. The hunter-gatherer conceptualization of the Jōmon period culture is part of scientific romanticized narratives.[35] There is evidence to suggest that arboriculture was practiced in the form of tending groves of lacquer (Toxicodendron verniciflua) and nut (Castanea crenata and Aesculus turbinata) producing trees,[36][37] as well as soybean, bottle gourd, hemp, Perilla, adzuki, among others. These characteristics place them somewhere in between hunting-gathering and agriculture.[35]

An apparently domesticated variety of peach appeared very early at Jōmon sites in 6700–6400 BP (4700–4400 BCE).[38] This was already similar to modern cultivated forms. This domesticated type of peach was apparently brought into Japan from China. Nevertheless, in China, itself, this variety is currently attested only at a later date of c. 5300–4300 BP.[38]

Population expansion edit

By the end of the Incipient Jōmon phase, around 8000 BCE, a semi-sedentary lifestyle apparently led to an increase in population density, so that the subsequent phase, the Initial Jōmon, exhibits some of the highest densities known for foraging populations.[b] Genetic mapping studies by Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza have shown a pattern of genetic expansion from the area of the Sea of Japan towards the rest of eastern Asia. This appears as the third principal component of genetic variation in Eurasia (after the "Great expansion" from the African continent, and a second expansion from the area of Northern Siberia), which suggests geographical expansion during the early Jōmon period.[c] These studies also suggest that the Jōmon demographic expansion could possibly have reached America along a path following the Pacific coast.[d]

Early Jōmon (5000–3520 BCE) edit

 
Reconstructed buildings in the Sannai-Maruyama Site,[40] Aomori Prefecture

The Early Jōmon period saw an explosion in population, as indicated by the number of larger aggregated villages from this period.[14] This period occurred during the Holocene climatic optimum, when the local climate became warmer and more humid.[41]

Middle Jōmon (3520–2479 BCE) edit

Highly ornate pottery dogū figurines and vessels, such as the so-called "flame style" vessels, and lacquered wood objects remain from that time. Although the ornamentation of pottery increased over time, the ceramic fabric always remained quite coarse. During this time Magatama stone beads make a transition from being a common jewelry item found in homes into serving as a grave good.[42] This is a period where there are large burial mounds and monuments.[14]

This period saw a rise in complexity in the design of pit-houses, the most commonly used method of housing at the time,[43][44] with some even having stone paved floors.[45] A study in 2015 found that this form of dwelling continued up until the Satsumon culture.[44] Using archaeological data on pollen count, this phase is the warmest of all the phases.[46] By the end of this phase the warm climate starts to enter a cooling trend.[14]

Late and Final Jōmon (2470–500 BCE) edit

After 1500 BCE, the climate cooled entering a stage of neoglaciation, and populations seem to have contracted dramatically.[14] Comparatively few archaeological sites can be found after 1500 BCE.

Castanea crenata becomes essential, not only as a nut bearing tree, but also because it was extremely durable in wet conditions an it became the most used timber for building houses during the Late Jōmon phase.[47]

During the Final Jōmon period, a slow shift was taking place in western Japan: steadily increasing contact with the Korean Peninsula eventually led to the establishment of Korean-type settlements in western Kyushu, beginning around 900 BCE. The settlers brought with them new technologies such as wet rice farming and bronze and iron metallurgy, as well as new pottery styles similar to those of the Mumun pottery period. The settlements of these new arrivals seem to have coexisted with those of the Jōmon and Yayoi for around a thousand years.

Outside Hokkaido, the Final Jōmon is succeeded by a new farming culture, the Yayoi (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE), named after an archaeological site near Tokyo.[48]

Within Hokkaido, the Jōmon is succeeded by the Zoku-Jōmon (post-Jōmon) or Epi-Jōmon period, which is in turn succeeded by the Satsumon culture around the 7th century.


Population decline edit

At the end of the Jōmon period the local population declined sharply. Scientists suggest that this was possibly caused because of food shortages and other environmental problems. They concluded that not all Jōmon groups suffered under these circumstances but the overall population declined.[49] Examining the remains of the people who lived throughout the Jōmon period, there is evidence that these deaths were not inflicted by warfare or violence on a large enough scale to cause these deaths.[50]



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  2. ^ Timothy Jinam; Hideaki Kanzawa-Kiriyama; Naruya Saitou (2015). "Human genetic diversity in the Japanese Archipelago: dual structure and beyond". Genes & Genetic Systems. 90 (3): 147–152. doi:10.1266/ggs.90.147. PMID 26510569.
  3. ^ Robbeets, Martine (2015), Diachrony of Verb Morphology: Japanese and the Transeurasian Languages, De Gruyter, p. 26, ISBN 978-3-11-039994-3
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