This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. (February 2024) |
The Japanese language has two main types of verbs which are referred to as pentagrade verbs (五段動詞, godan-dōshi) and monograde verbs (一段動詞, ichidan-dōshi).
Verb groups
editCategories are important when conjugating Japanese verbs, since conjugation patterns vary according to the verb's category. For example, 切る (kiru) and 見る (miru) belong to different verb categories (pentagrade and monograde, respectively) and therefore follow different conjugation patterns. Most Japanese verbs are allocated into two categories:
- Pentagrade verbs[1] or quinquigrade verbs[2] (五段動詞, godan-dōshi)
- Monograde verbs[1][2] (一段動詞, ichidan-dōshi)
Statistically, there are far more pentagrade verbs[3] than monograde verbs.[4]
Sometimes categorization is expanded to include a third category of irregular verbs—which most notably include the verbs する (suru, to do) and 来る (kuru, to come). Classical Japanese had more verb groups, such as bigrade verbs (二段動詞, nidan-dōshi)[5] and quadrigrade verbs (四段動詞, yodan-dōshi),[6][7] which are archaic in Modern Japanese.
Terminology
editThe word grade in pentagrade and monograde is translated from 段 (dan). The most familiar use of this Japanese word in English contexts is for ranking in martial arts. In grammar, 段 is a synonym for 列 (retsu)[8] and opposite to 行 (gyō). The translations for 段/烈 and 行 vary, either of them can be translated as "row" or "column", but the distinction is simply that 行 is named after consonants, as か行 (ka-gyō "ka-row"), while 段/烈 is named after vowels, as in い烈 (i-retsu "i-column") or い段 (i-dan "i-grade"). The あ行 (a-gyō "a-row") consists the kana あ (a), い (i), う (u), え (e), お (o), which differ only by vowels; while the あ段 (a-dan "a-grade") consists of the kana あ (a), か (ka), が (ga), さ (sa), ざ (za), た (ta), だ (da), な (na), は (ha), ば (ba), ぱ (pa), ま (ma), や (ya), ら (ra), わ (wa), which differ only by consonants.
The 五段 (godan "pentagrade" or "quinquigrade") class consists of verbs whose inflection forms make use of all five grades, or five vowels. For example, the inflection forms of the verb 書く (kaku "to write; to draw", ka-row) are 書か (kaka)/書こ (kako), 書き (kaki), 書く (kaku), and 書け (kake). These verbs developed from the earlier 四段 (yodan "quadrigrade") class, after a historical sound change that turned such form as 書かむ (kakamu) into 書こう (kakō) and resulted in an additional vowel (see Late Middle Japanese).
The 一段 (ichidan "monograde") class consists of verbs that occupy only one grade, or one vowel. Dictionaries[8][9][10][11] may further divide this class into 上一段 (kamiichidan "upper monograde"[2]) if the vowel is the "upper" i, and 下一段 (shimoichidan "lower monograde"[2]) if the vowel is the "lower" e. The verb 見る (miru "to look", ma-row), whose inflection forms are 見 (mi), 見る (miru), 見れ (mire) and 見ろ (miro)/見よ (miyo), is an example of an "upper monograde" verb, and the verb 得る (eru "to earn", a-row) is a "lower monograde" verb. Some monograde verbs evolved from earlier forms of bigrade verbs (上二段 kaminidan and 下二段 shimonidan).
Dictionaries[8][9][10][11] often list ancestral forms of modern verbs as well as their classes. Thus, the entry for 書く may include a note like （動カ五［四］）,[8] which means "verb, ka-row, pentagrade, formerly quadrigrade"); while the entry for 受ける (ukeru "to take") may include （動カ下一）[文]カ下二 う・く,[8] which means "verb, ka-row, lower monograde, lower bigrade equivalent in Classical Japanese is 受く".
Note that the choices of prefixes in these English terms by some authors are rather inconsistent: while mono- and penta- are Greek, bi-, quadri- and quinqui- are Latin. The word grade is actually Latin, not Greek in origin. Plain English alternatives to "pentagrade/quinquigrade", "quadrigrade", "bigrade" and "monograde" include "five-grade", "four-grade", "two-grade" and "one-grade",[12] or "four rows", "two rows" and "one row."[13]
Some Western analyses refer to "pentagrade/quinquigrade" verbs as "consonant-stem" verbs. Such analyses may represent the root form of the verb 書く as kak-, emphasizing the unchanging consonant k. "Monograde" verbs are then referred to as "vowel-stem" verbs.[14]
Here is a visualization that compares various verb conjugations to an extracted column of the gojūon table:
| Pentagrade Form | Pentagrade Verb 読む (to read) |
Gojūon table 'ma' column |
Monograde Form | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Negative | Polite | Dictionary | Potential | Volitional | |||||
| Negative | 読まない yomanai |
ま (ma) | |||||||
| Polite | 読みます yomimasu |
み (mi) | みない minai |
みます mimasu |
みる miru |
みられる mirareru |
みよう miyō |
Upper Monograde Verb 見る (to see) | |
| Dictionary (no conjugation) |
読む yomu |
む (mu) | |||||||
| Potential | 読める yomeru |
め (me) | 止めない tomenai |
止めます tomemasu |
止める tomeru |
止められる tomerareru |
止めよう tomeyō |
Lower Monograde Verb 止める (to stop) | |
| Volitional | 読もう yomō |
も (mo) | |||||||
In the table above, the verb 読む (yomu, to read) uses kana from all 5 rows of the gojūon table in its inflectional suffix—ま (ma), み (mi), む (mu), め (me) and も (mo)—amongst its conjugations. Thus, it is classified as a "class-5" (or more formally "pentagrade") verb. Meanwhile, the verbs 見る (to see) and 止める (to stop) each use kana from only 1 row of the gojūon table in their verb-stem's suffix—み (mi) and め (me) respectively. Thus, they are classified as a "class-1" (or more formally "monograde") verbs.
Godan vs yodan
editAll modern godan verbs are derived from historical yodan verbs.[15] The distinction between these two classes relies solely on the interaction between the mizenkei (未然形) and the "tentative" (推量, suiryō) auxiliary u (う) (historically, mu (む)). Consider the verb kaku (書く, "to write"):
- kaka- + -mu → kakamu (historical form) → kakau (historical form) → kakō (modern form)
The shift of vowels from au to ō was regular and expansive during Late Middle Japanese, and it practically introduced an additional dan (段, in other words, vowel) to the inflectional forms of yodan verbs:
| yodan (四段) | mizenkei (未然形) | ren'yōkei (連用形) | shūshikei (終止形) | rentaikei (連体形) | izenkei (已然形) | meireikei (命令形) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kaka- | kaki | kaku | kake | |||
| godan (五段) | mizenkei (未然形) | ren'yōkei (連用形) | shūshikei (終止形) | rentaikei (連体形) | kateikei (仮定形) | meireikei (命令形) |
| kaka- → kako-(u) | kaki | kaku | kake | |||
The term godan (五段) is a fairly modern coinage. During the time when modern kana usage was being adopted to write modern Japanese (口語, kōgo, lit. 'spoken language') in place of historical kana usage, one of the changes concerned how such a form as kakō should be spelt. The modern spelling かこう was proposed along with godan as the name for the modernized yodan class. Traditionalist grammarians, on the other hand, would insist on such spelling as かかう to reflect the historical pronunciation kakau, and on the modern pronunciation being inferred from such spelling. Some argued that a single interaction with the auxiliary u did not justify creating an entire new grammatical class, given that the mizenkei does not involve a vowel shift with any other auxiliary:[15]
- kaka- + -nai → kakanai
- kaka- + -nu → kakanu
- kaka- + -n[a] → kakan
- kaka- + -zu → kakazu
Moreover, the auxiliary -ta and the particle -te also notably alter the ren'yōkei:
- kaki + -ta/-te → kaita/te
- omoi + -ta/-te → omotta/te
- yomi + -ta/-te → yonda/de
Yet, such alterations are not reflected by either the term yodan or the term godan at all, despite occurring in both these supposedly different inflections (although in classical Japanese (文語, bungo, lit. 'written language'), these alterations in pronunciation must be inferred from the spellings). This means that exceptional interactions with auxiliaries and particles like these ought not to be the basis for naming verb classes.[15]
Obviously, the spelling reform took place and the term godan became mainstream. Historical kana usage is now reserved only for the writing of classical Japanese, and yodan verbs are largely considered a classical Japanese class while godan verbs make up a fundamental part of modern Japanese.
Japanese language education
editWithin Japanese language education, various terminologies are used in lieu of the Japanese nomenclature for "pentagrade" and "monograde" verbs.
| Pentagrade verbs | Monograde verbs | Irregular verbs | Example literature | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Common terminology | Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 | A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar[16] |
| Group I | Group II | Group III | ||
| Uncommon terminology | う-verbs (u-verbs) | る-verbs (ru-verbs) | Irregular verbs | GENKI[1] |
| Rare terminology | Consonant stem verbals | Vowel stem verbals | - | Japanese: The Spoken Language |
In literature adopting the "Group I / II / III" terminology, the terms (I), (II) or (III) may be notated beside verbs. Similarly, (う) or (る) may be notated beside verbs in literature adopting the "う-verbs / る-verbs" terminology.
Consonant and vowel nomenclature
editThe terms "consonant stem verbs" and "vowel stem verbs" come from a pattern that emerges from studying the actual structure of the words rather than the written representation. When considering the invariant part of the verb (the verb stem), the final phoneme determines the classification of the verb group. If the verb stem's final phoneme:
- is a consonant, then it is a consonant stem verb (pentagrade verb)
- is a vowel, then it is a vowel stem verb (monograde verb)
| 読む (to read) | 走る (to run) | 見る (to see) | 食べる (to eat) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Negative | yom.anai 読まない |
hashir.anai 走らない |
mi.nai 見ない |
tabe.nai 食べない |
| Polite form | yom.imasu 読みます |
hashir.imasu 走ります |
mi.masu 見ます |
tabe.masu 食べます |
| Plain form | yom.u 読む |
hashir.u 走る |
mi.ru 見る |
tabe.ru 食べる |
| Potential form | yom.eru 読める |
hashir.eru 走れる |
mi.rareru 見られる |
tabe.rareru 食べられる |
| Volitional form | yom.ou 読もう |
hashir.ou 走ろう |
mi.you 見よう |
tabe.you 食べよう |
| Invariant rōmaji | yom | hashir | mi | tabe |
| Final letter | m → consonant | r → consonant | i → vowel | e → vowel |
| Classification | Consonant stem | Consonant stem | Vowel stem | Vowel stem |
There are criticisms of the consonant and vowel nomenclature:
- When pentagrade verbs end with "う" (u), the verb's invariant stem always ends with a vowel, yet is still classified as having a consonant stem. For example, 買う (kau, to buy) has the vowel "a" as the invariant suffix, yet it is still categorized as a "consonant stem verb".
In these cases, this apparent contradiction is resolved by realizing that the verb's invariant stem ends in the consonant w. The w is normally suppressed, but surfaces in the negative form, as seen in 買わない (kawanai, to not buy). Traditionally these verbs ended in -hu, which is still seen on occasion in historical kana usage, and thus unambiguously ended in h. - When godan verbs end with "つ" (tsu), the verb's invariant stem always ends with an "s" rather than a "t". Since the consonant stem terminology focuses on rōmaji, this could lead to conjugation errors. For example, 待つ (matsu, to wait) in its negative conjugation does not become "待つぁない" (matsanai) as the consonant stem system might have one believe; the correct conjugation is 待たない (matanai, to not wait). The matter is resolved when phonemic notation of "tu" used by Kunrei-shiki romanization is applied instead.
- In the case of the past-tense and te forms of conjugation, the 'invariant' stem changes such that the consonant is removed from all godan verbs (except verbs ending in "つ" (tsu) or "す" (su)). This means the defining characteristic of consonant stem verbs cannot be used to define consonant stem verbs for the past-tense or te forms. The true "invariant stem", which is consistent amongst all conjugations, precedes the so-called "invariant consonant".
Verb classification
editClassifying verbs is simple in theory:
- Take the verb in its plain, negative form. The result will be:
verb-stem+ない (nai) - If the last character of the
verb-stem(ignoring the "ない"):
- rhymes with 〜ぁ (-a), then it is a pentagrade verb
- rhymes with 〜ぃ (-i) or 〜ぇ (-e), then it is a monograde verb
| Negative verb | Last character of verb stem | Rhymes with | Group |
|---|---|---|---|
| 思わない (omowanai, to not think) | わ (wa) | 〜ぁ (-a) → | Pentagrade verb |
| 行かない (ikanai, to not go) | か (ka) | 〜ぁ (-a) → | Pentagrade verb |
| 起きない (okinai, to not wake up) | き (ki) | 〜ぃ (-i) → | Monograde verb |
| 食べない (tabenai, to not eat) | べ (be) | 〜ぇ (-e) → | Monograde verb |
This classification system works for all Japanese verbs, with three exceptions: ある (aru) is a pentagrade verb, and both しない (shinai) and こない (konai) are instead classified as irregular verbs.[16]
Dot notation
editIn some Japanese dictionaries, the readings of conjugable words may have the stem and the inflectional suffix separated by a dot (・). For example, the adjective 赤い (akai, red) may be written as あか・い (aka·i) to separate the static prefix from the dynamic suffix.
This system also describes the verb group classification: in pentagrade verbs, the dot is placed before the last kana; in monograde verbs, the dot is placed before the last 2 kana (except for 2-kana monograde verbs, which have no dot).
| 3-kana verbs | 2-kana verbs | |
|---|---|---|
| Pentagrade verbs | かえ・る (kae·ru, to return) | い・る (i·ru, to need) |
| Monograde verbs | か・える (ka·eru, to change) | いる (iru, to exist) |
However, regardless of the dot's position, the inflectional suffix is always the last kana of any monograde verb.
Naive verb classification
editA caveat of accurately classifying verb groups is that you must have pre-existing knowledge of the verb's negative form. In practice, people tend to learn the verb's plain form first. As such, Japanese language educators usually teach strategies for naive verb classification. Whilst such strategies are not comprehensive, they generally remain useful in the context of regular daily conversations that language beginners will likely encounter. Here is one such strategy:
| Step | Verb (Plain Form) | If Yes | If Not |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Is the verb one of the most common "exceptions":
要る (iru, to need), 入る (hairu, to enter), 走る (hashiru, to run), 帰る (kaeru, to return, to go home), 切る (kiru, to cut), 知る (shiru, to know), 喋る (shaberu, to talk) |
Pentagrade verb Group 1 |
Go to Step 2 |
| 2 | Does the verb suffix rhyme with 〜ぃる (-iru) or 〜ぇる (-eru)? | Monograde verb Group 2 |
Go to Step 3 |
| 3 | Is the verb する (suru, to do) or 来る (kuru, to come)? | Irregular verb Group 3 |
Pentagrade verb Group 1 |
Naive strategies, such as this one, tend to misidentify pentagrade verbs ending with る (ru)—specifically, when pentagrade verbs rhyme with 〜ぃる (-iru) or 〜ぇる (-eru). Therefore, when a monograde verb is concluded from a naive strategy, it is more efficient to confirm the verb's classification in a dictionary. However, there are other rules-of-thumb to more accurately discriminate such verbs.
Rules of thumb
editIf a dictionary is unavailable, it becomes difficult to discriminate pentagrade verbs from monograde verbs when they rhyme with 〜ぃる (-iru) or 〜ぇる (-eru). The following heuristics aim to improve the accuracy of naive classification:
- There are far more pentagrade verbs[3] than monograde verbs.[4]
- Verbs that do not rhyme with 〜ぃる (-iru) or 〜ぇる (-eru) are pentagrade verbs.
- This includes verbs that rhyme with 〜ぁる (-aru), 〜ぅる (-uru) and 〜ぉる (-oru), which are pentagrade verbs.
- The majority of verbs that rhyme with 〜ぃる (-iru) are pentagrade verbs.
- 248 of the 419 〜ぃる (-iru) verbs [ca. 60%] listed in JMdict are pentagrade verbs.[citation needed]
- The majority of verbs that rhyme with 〜ぇる (-eru) are monograde verbs.
- 2886 of the 3013 〜ぇる (-eru) verbs [ca. 95%] listed in JMdict are monograde verbs.[citation needed]
Kana and kanji based heuristics for 〜ぃる (-iru) and 〜ぇる (-eru) verbs:
- Verbs written entirely in hiragana are pentagrade verbs. For example, びびる (bibiru, to be surprised) and のめる (nomeru, to fall forward) are pentagrade verbs.
- Kanji verbs with 1 okurigana and 3+ syllables are pentagrade verbs. For example, 契る (chi-gi-ru, to pledge) and 嘲る (a-za-ke-ru, to ridicule) are pentagrade verbs.
- Kanji verbs with 2 okurigana are usually monograde verbs. For example, 起きる (okiru, to get up) and 食べる (taberu, to eat) are monograde verbs.
- Kanji verbs with 2 syllables are inconclusive. For example, 切る (ki-ru) and 見る (mi-ru) are both 2-syllable verbs, yet belong to different categories (pentagrade and monograde, respectively)
Pentagrade verbs resembling monograde verbs
editThere are many pentagrade verbs which may be mistaken for being monograde verbs in some cases . On the surface, this may seem like a problem that only affects conjugation patterns, since pentagrade verbs and monograde verbs conjugate differently . However there are many verbs that, despite having the same spelling, have different meanings and belong to different verb groups. For example:
| Pentagrade verbs | Transcription
(Rōmaji) |
Monograde verbs |
|---|---|---|
| 要る (to need) | iru | 居る (to exist) |
| 切る (to cut) | kiru | 着る (to put on clothing) |
| 帰る (to go home) | kaeru | 変える (to change) |
| 湿る (to be damp/wet) | shimeru | 閉める (to close) |
When reading verbs such as these, the correct word meaning can be ascertained through the different kanji or accentuation. However, ambiguity is usually removed if the verbs have been conjugated somehow, because different word groups conjugate with slightly varying pronunciations. For example:
| Verb conjugation |
kiru | kaeru | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pentagrade verb 切る (to cut) |
Monograde verb 着る (to put on clothing) |
Pentagrade verb 帰る (to go home) |
Monograde verb 変える (to change) | |||
| Negative | 切らない kiranai |
着ない kinai |
帰らない kaeranai |
変えない kaenai | ||
| Polite form | 切ります kirimasu |
着ます kimasu |
帰ります kaerimasu |
変えます kaemasu | ||
| Potential form | 切れる kireru |
着られる kirareru |
帰れる kaereru |
変えられる kaerareru | ||
| Volitional form | 切ろう kirō |
着よう kiyō |
帰ろう kaerō |
変えよう kaeyō | ||
Since there are so many pentagrade verbs that resemble monograde verbs, it is impractical to create or memorize an exhaustive list of words.
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Alternative form of either "tentative" -mu or "negative" -nu.
References
edit- ^ a b c Banno, Eri; Ikeda, Yoko; Ohno, Yutaka; Shinagawa, Chikako; Tokashiki, Kyoko (2020). "Lesson 3, Grammar 1: Verb Conjugation". GENKI: An Integrated Course in Elementary Japanese I (3 ed.). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Times. pp. 86–88. ISBN 978-4-7890-1730-5.
- ^ a b c d Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). A History of the Japanese Language. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ a b "JMdictDB - Pentagrade Verbs - 7434 Search results". www.edrdg.org. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
- ^ a b "JMdictDB - Monograde Verbs - 3733 Search results". www.edrdg.org. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
- ^ "JMdictDB - Bigrade Verbs - 61 Search results". www.edrdg.org. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
- ^ "JMdictDB - Quadrigrade Verbs - 62 Search results". www.edrdg.org. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
- ^ Wixted, John Timothy (2006). "Verb Basics". A Handbook to Classical Japanese. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University East Asia Program. pp. 28–32. ISBN 978-1-933947-04-4.
- ^ a b c d e Daijirin
- ^ a b Nihon Kokugo Daijiten
- ^ a b Daijisen
- ^ a b Kōjien
- ^ Shirane, Haruo (2005). Classical Japanese: A Grammar. Columbia University Press.
- ^ Komai, Akira (1979). A Grammar of Classical Japanese.
- ^ Matsuoka McClain, Yoko (1981). "Verbs". Handbook of Modern Japanese Grammar. The Hokuseido Press.
- ^ a b c Yamaguchi, Akiho; 秋山, 守英 (1 March 2001). 日本語文法大辞典. Meiji Shoin.
- ^ a b Makino, Seiichi; Tsutsui, Michio (1989). A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar (80 ed.). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Times. p. 578. ISBN 978-47-89004-54-1.
External links
edit- Archive of the Usenet newsgroup sci.lang.japan forums, a non-exhaustive list of ~iru and ~eru pentagrade verbs
- Aeron Buchanan's Japanese Verb Chart, a concise summary of all Japanese verbs conjugations on one sheet of A4