In China, house churches or family churches (Chinese: 家庭教会; pinyin: jiātíng jiàohuì) are Protestant assemblies in the People's Republic of China that operate independently from the state-sanctioned Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) and China Christian Council (CCC). They represent a tradition of independent churches that would not come under the control of the Chinese Communist Party dating back to Wang Ming-Dao in the 1950s.[1] However, they came into their current form of existence after the Cultural Revolution in the early-1980s.
Terminology
editWhile these groups are sometimes described as "underground churches" (地下教会; dìxià jiàohuì), this term is generally associated with Catholic assemblies who have chosen to operate independently from the state-sanctioned Catholic Patriotic Association and the Bishops Conference of Catholic Church in China.
K. H. Ting, one of the key leaders of the TSPM and the CCC for many years, did not like the term "house church" and preferred to use the term "house gathering" (家庭聚会; jiātíng jùhuì). This was because he found designations such as "house church" and "official church" as returning to the pre-Cultural Revolution practice of denominationalism.[2]
Some scholars prefer to use terms such as "unregistered church" to speak about the Protestant phenomenon, because these groups can reach several hundred and do not always literally meet in someone's home.[3] Others suggest the need to discard the "house church" vs. "TSPM church" dichotomy as there is a lot that blurs these divisions, including the relationship between the two groups themselves.[4][5]
Moreover, as a result of the rapid urbanization of China since the 1990s, there has been a growing development within urban Christianity. Some congregations have preferred to self-identify as being part of a "third church" to differentiate from both traditional house churches and TSPM churches.[6]
History
editIn 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) gained control of mainland China and established the People's Republic of China (PRC). Shortly thereafter, well-known Christian leader Y. T. Wu authored and published "The Christian Manifesto", which publicly supported the CCP's policy of overseeing the church for the sake of national unity and progress and called on all Protestant Christians to follow suit. In the 1950s, Wu successfully oversaw the signing of "The Christian Manifesto" by roughly half of the Protestant population across China. He also played a key role in creating and leading the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM), a state-sanctioned governing body for Protestant Christianity in China.
However, China's independent churches, championed by Wang Ming-Dao, strongly resisted the TSPM both for its allegiance to a political entity and its liberal theological leanings. As a result of their refusal to join with the TSPM, an entire generation of China's independent pastors were severely persecuted and their churches forced to close. These resistant churches often began meeting in undisclosed locations, such as individual homes or fields, thus gaining the name "house church". Despite the TSPM's efforts to maintain a good relationship with the CCP, it too was eventually dismantled and persecuted during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) so that all Christian practice in China became persecuted and hidden. During the period from the 1950s to 1970s, the strongest house church networks could be found in China's countryside.[7]
Due to the changes in religious policy after the end of the Cultural Revolution, in 1980, the Three-Self Patriotic Movement would be reinstated and the China Christian Council would be formed. Protestant congregations that wished to worship publicly registered with the TSPM, but those that did not would eventually be termed house churches.[3]
Since the 1990s, a number of developments have resulted from the rapid urbanization experienced in Chinese society. While house churches originated as being quite independent of one another, a number of house church networks have developed, with some headquartered in Henan and Zhejiang provinces. These networks have sent missionaries all over the country and have even started sending them abroad to neighboring states.[8]
The rapid urbanization has also resulted in migration to China's urban centers and the rise of urban house churches. [9] Some of these have developed through migrant worker communities and university students. Other new communities can be seen among urban intellectuals and entrepreneurs, the latter termed "boss Christians" (老板基督徒; lǎobǎn jīdūtú).
The house church has grown by some estimations to tens of millions of Christians. They had demonstrated national-level influence when Christians organized to provide relief to the deadly 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a disaster which the government was slow to handle. In 2018, the CCP began to introduce a series of new religious regulations. It closed Zion Church in Beijing and Early Rain Covenant Church in Chengdu, whose pastor, Wang Yi, was given a jail sentence of 9 years, the longest given to a pastor in several decades.[10]
Legality
editHouse churches in China are generally considered illegal, yet smaller house churches of less than 25 members tend to be tolerated by the government.[11] However, some have grown to a fairly large size, such as the Shouwang Church which reached 1,000 members at its height.[12] House churches today still experience persecution, though the situation tends to differ depending on the region.[13] American political scientist Carsten T. Vala argues that house churches are subject to persecution when they cross red lines, which include, apart from size, rapid growth, active proselytization, the attempt to form national networks, contacts with foreign Christian organization, and criticism of the government.[14]
House churches are often reluctant to become official by joining the state-sanctioned Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM). In addition to accepting the worrying institutional memory of government use of the TSPM to suppress churches during the 1950s, groups joining the TSPM would have to agree to limits on the time and location of religious activities, among other restrictions.[13] Further, some Christians find certain TSPM teachings inconsistent with their personal faith. All churches submit to government monitoring as a condition of state approval; the government has direct oversight over TSPM congregations and can insist that Christians honor the government, in addition to traditional Christian theological teachings. Many Chinese Christians choose to attend house churches to practice their faith without government interference.[15]
Some house churches, however, submit their activities for government approval in an attempt to follow the law as closely as possible while remaining independent. In some instances, authorities have allowed such house churches to continue to operate. In others, officials have arrested pastors, congregants, and others affiliated with the targeted congregations,[16] and have even gone so far as the destruction of buildings used for worship.[17]
Pentecostal characteristics
editThe first Pentecostal missionaries arrived in China shortly after the Azusa Street Revival as part of groups such as the Christian and Missionary Alliance, the China Inland Mission, the Pentecostal Missionary Union, and the Assemblies of God. These groups would also be instrumental in inspiring the creation of indigenous Pentecostal groups, such as the True Jesus Church and the Jesus Family.[18]
Today, Chinese house churches are commonly described as being Pentecostal or charismatic.[19] This is often the case due to the experience of miraculous healing. According to some surveys, 90% of converts to Protestant Christianity, in both house churches and TSPM churches, cite healing as a reason for their conversion.[20]
However, a number of scholars have attempted to reconsider this description, using phrases such as "Pentecostal-like" or "Pentecostal characteristics" to indicate this ambiguity.[21]
The Assemblies of God theologian Simon Chan argues that "an adequate definition of Pentecostalism cannot be restricted to phenomenological description" – that is, based on experiences.[22] Chan continues to explain that classical Pentecostal beliefs such as Spirit-baptism and speaking in tongues are not prevalent in Chinese churches, when compared with miraculous healing.
Edmond Tang has pointed out that only a few groups, like the True Jesus Church and the Jesus Family, can trace themselves back to missionaries coming from Pentecostal denominations.[20] Many of the Pentecostal characteristics in Chinese churches are seen to have parallels with Chinese folk religion, such as trances, ancestral worship, and the use of talismans.[23] Some have described this as a folk religionization of Christianity.[20][23]
Robert Menzies disputes these views, arguing, "The common thread that unites Pentecostals in China with other Pentecostals around the world is their sense of connection with the apostolic church as reflected in the book of Acts."[24]
The hymnal Canaan Hymns, rich in pneumatological themes, is widely used.[25]
Similar organization in other religions
editWhile foreign media often focus discussion about house churches mainly with relation to Protestantism, other religious traditions in China have chosen a similar form of organization. These include house assemblies of Han Chinese following Tibetan Buddhism, led by lamas and tulkus,[26] Buddhist and Baháʼí Faith study groups, unregistered Zhengyi and vernacular forms of Taoism, and various folk religious groupings such as Yiguandao.[27]
References
edit- ^ What is the House Church?. "What is the House Church?". The Center for House Church Theology. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
- ^ Wickeri, Philip L. (2007). Reconstructing Christianity in China: K. H. Ting and the Chinese Church. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. p. 237. ISBN 978-1570757518.
- ^ a b Bays, Daniel (2012). A New History of Christianity in China. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 182, 190–195.
- ^ Wielander, Gerda (2013). Christian Values in Communist China. London: Routledge. pp. 15–18.
- ^ McLeister, Mark (June 24, 2013). "'House Church' and 'Three-Self': Cooperation Across the Christian Community". ChinaSource. Archived from the original on March 26, 2016. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
- ^ Chow, Alexander (2014). "Calvinist Public Theology in Urban China Today" (PDF). International Journal of Public Theology. 8 (2): 163. doi:10.1163/15697320-12341340. hdl:20.500.11820/9dc682b5-4fe2-4022-932a-89d466dd71c1. S2CID 143357822. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-27. Retrieved 2019-01-29.
- ^ "What is the House Church?". The Center for House Church Theology. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
- ^ Aikman, David (2003). Jesus in Beijing: How Christianity is Transforming China and Changing the Global Balance of Power. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing. pp. 73–96. ISBN 978-0-89526-128-1.
- ^ Fulton, Brent (2015). China's Urban Christians: A Light That Cannot Be Hidden. Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications. pp. 6–21.
- ^ ""What is the House Church?"". The Center for House Church Theology. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
- ^ "Sons of heaven". The Economist. October 2, 2008. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on November 27, 2017. Retrieved May 7, 2016.
- ^ Gauthier, Ursula (2 June 2011). "Why Do Christian Groups in China Put Authorities on Red Alert?". Time. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 19 June 2011.
- ^ a b Voice of the Marytrs (June 12, 2003). "Chinese Police Proudly Record Their Torture of Christians - Resources - Eternal Perspective Ministries". www.epm.org. Archived from the original on May 8, 2016. Retrieved May 7, 2016.
- ^ Vala, Carsten T. (2017). The Politics of Protestant Churches and the Party-State in China: God Above Party?. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1138036901.
- ^ "Inside the House Church Movement in China". palladiummag.com. 19 August 2019. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
- ^ "For China's underground churches, this was no easy Christmas". Los Angeles Times. 25 December 2019. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
- ^ "Chinese Police Dynamite Christian Megachurch". The New York Times. 12 January 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
- ^ Bays, Daniel H.; Johnson, Todd M. (2002). "China". In Burgess, Stanley M. (ed.). The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. pp. 58–64. ISBN 978-0310224815.
- ^ Koesel, Karrie J. (2014-01-14). "China's Patriotic Pentecostals". Review of Religion and Chinese Society. 1 (2): 131–155. doi:10.1163/22143955-04102002b.
- ^ a b c Tang, Edmond (2005). "'Yellers' and Healers: Pentecostalism and the Study of Grassroots Christianity in China". In Anderson, Allan; Tang, Edmond (eds.). Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia. Oxford: Regnum. pp. 481–485. ISBN 978-1870345439.
- ^ Oblau, Gotthard (2005). "Pentecostal by Default? Contemporary Christianity in China". In Anderson, Allan; Tang, Edmond (eds.). Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia. Oxford: Regnum. pp. 411–436. ISBN 978-1870345439.
- ^ Chan, Simon (2005). "Wither Pentecostalism?". In Anderson, Allan; Tang, Edmond (eds.). Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia. Oxford: Regnum. p. 578. ISBN 978-1870345439.
- ^ a b Gao, Shining (Dec 2000). "Twenty-first Century Chinese Christianity and the Chinese Social Process". China Study Journal. 15 (2–3): 14–18.
- ^ Menzies, Robert (January 21, 2015). "Pentecostal Theology and the Chinese Church". ChinaSource. Archived from the original on April 27, 2016. Retrieved 2016-04-21.
- ^ Starr, Chloë (2016). Chinese Theology: Text and Context. Yale University Press. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-300-22493-1. Archived from the original on 2017-02-17. Retrieved 2017-02-14.
- ^ Yu, Dan Smyer (2013). The Spread of Tibetan Buddhism in China: Charisma, Money, Enlightenment. New York: Routledge. pp. 22, 88. ISBN 978-0415575324.
- ^ Palmer, David A. (1 December 2012). "From "Congregations" to "Small Group Community Building"" (PDF). Chinese Sociological Review. 45 (2): 78–98. doi:10.2753/CSA2162-0555450205. hdl:10722/189427. S2CID 144740503. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.