1916 Warsaw City Council election

Elections to the Warsaw City Council were held in July 1916 – under German occupation during World War I. It was the first modern municipal election in Warsaw, as well as the first local election in Poland after the Russian retreat.[1][2] The electorate was divided into six curiae, each with 15 seats in the council. As a pre-electoral pact was reached for four out of the six curiae, voting was held only in the Third Curia (intellectuals) and the Sixth Curia (general public).[3] In the Sixth Curia, to which most voters belonged, the winners were the National Democracy on the Polish side and the Folkists on the Jewish side. Per Jesse Kaufmann (2015) "the election brought to the fore the question of Polish-Jewish relations and triggered an attempt on part of the occupiers to limit Jewish influence while maintaining a facade of strict impartiality".[4]

Background

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On July 1, 1915, the German authorities issued call for convening City Councils in occupied Poland based on Prussian model, to replace system of Citizens Committees put in place under Russian rule.[5] On August 6, 1915, the Warsaw Citizen's Committee [pl] overtook functions of the city government.[6] The Warsaw Citizens Committee eventually approached the German authorities asking for elections, and on March 23, 1916, the German occupation authorities agreed that the Citizens Committee would be replaced by an elected City Council.[6][4]

 
The 26 Militia Districts

Furthermore, during the spring of 1916, the city boundaries of Warsaw were expanded with suburbs being integrated into the city – on the Vistula River left bank; Czerniaków, Siekierki, Szopy, Mokotów, Ochota, Czyste, Wola, Koło, Powązki, Bielany, Marymont, Buraków and Słodowiec, on the right bank; Golędzinów, Żerań, Szmulowizna, Bródno, Pelcowizna, Targówek, Kawęczyn, Grochów, Saska Kępa, Kamionek and Gocławek.[7] Through the incorporation of these areas into the city, the area of Warsaw grew from 32.75 square kilometres to 114.83 square kilometres.[7] Under German rule, the city was divided into 26 militia commissariat districts.

Citizens Committee draft ordinance

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The Warsaw Citizens Committee held several extraordinary meetings in April 1916, to discuss a draft electoral ordinance for the City Council election. The most extensive of these meetings occurred on April 16, 1916. At the meeting Piotr Drzewiecki called for a fixed quota for Jewish members of the City Council, to avoid a potential Jewish majority. Zdzisław Lubomirski, installed by the German authorities as mayor of Warsaw, called for measures to restrict the numbers of Jews that could participate in the election in order to guarantee the Polish character of the City Council. Others criticized Lubomirski's propositions, stating that such measures would cause embarrassment to Poland internationally. Samuel Dickstein, a Jewish assimilationist, rejected the argument that Jews would constitute a unified political bloc. In the end the proposals calling for restricting Jewish participation were voted down with 8 votes in favour, 15 against and 1 abstention.[8][4]

Prussian electoral system and voter registry

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Decree by Imperial Electoral Commissar Jaraczewski calling on voters to register, 10 June 1916

The German occupation authorities ultimately rejected the Warsaw Citizens Committee April 1916 draft electoral ordinance, and instead opted for an electoral ordinance based on the Prussian system of separate and unequal curiae.[1] On May 28, 1916, the German occupation authorities issued a bulletin with the provisions for the election of the Warsaw City Council.[9] The electoral regulation mixed a system of curiae with proportional election (except in the Third Curia).[9] The new City Council would have 90 seats.[9] Candidates had to be men over the age of 30 years, with "spotless moral and political reputation" and fluent Polish language skills.[9][4] Voting rights were given to men aged over 25 years.[9][4] Moreover, a small number of wealthy and educated women were given the right to vote, albeit only through a male proxy.[9][4] The German authorities divided the voters into six curiae, with each of the curiae being allotted 15 seats in the City Council.[4] On June 4, 1916, Warsaw residents began entering their names in electoral rolls of the six curiae.[6] Initially interest in the election was low, but the electoral campaign soon captured the attention of the city.[6] All in all by late June 1916, there were a total of 82,223 registered voters.[10]

Curia Number of registered voters % of registered voters
First Curia Real estate owners (landlords) 5,674 6.90%
Second Curia Trade or industrial license (patent) payers, i.e. representatives of heavy industry and large commercial concerns 1,283 1.56%
Third Curia Intellectuals, subdivided into six groups – 1st group – Roman Catholic clergy (1 seat), 2nd group – lawyers (3 seats), 3rd group – tutors, teachers and school inspectors (3 seats, with one of the seats reserved for faculty of Warsaw University), 4th group – physicians, dentists, veterinarians and pharmacists (3 seats), 5th group – engineers and technicians with higher education (3 seats, with one seat reserved for faculty of Warsaw Technical College), 6th group – students and others with higher education who did not belong to any of the other five groups of the Third Curia (2 seats) 2,345 2.85%
Fourth Curia Trade or industrial license (patent) payers (at a lower rate than 2d Curia members), i.e. representatives of craft-based industries, smaller merchants and small businesses 16,050 19.52%
Fifth Curia Payers of housing tax in Warsaw (in 1915 and 1916) 5,794 7.05%
Sixth Curia Registered inhabitants of Warsaw who did not fulfill any of the criteria of the first five Curiae, i.e. the working class 51,077 62.12%

[9][4][10]

The city was divided into 52 electoral districts.[10] The 2,345 registered voters of the Third Curia were not divided into electoral districts.

District Electoral Bureau Militia Commiss. First Curia % Second Curia % Fourth Curia % Fifth Curia % Sixth Curia % Total
1 Bednarska 6 I 95 5.6 15 0.9 54 3.2 104 6.1 1,425 84.2 1,694
2 Mazowiecka [pl] 12 I 14 0.7 101 4.9 294 14.4 270 13.2 1,363 66.7 2,169
3 Miodowa 12 II 52 6.4 20 2.5 107 13.2 32 4.0 597 73.9 808
4 Freta [fr] 10 II 106 6.2 1 0.1 230 13.4 40 2.3 1,335 78.0 1,712
5 Nowomiejska [fr] 10 II 73 4.1 24 1.4 355 20.1 102 5.8 1,208 68.6 1,762
6 Przejazd 5 III 74 3.3 12 0.5 464 20.9 188 8.5 1,477 66.7 2,215
7 Nowolipie [pl] 52 III 95 5.4 16 0.9 312 17.6 123 6.9 1,226 69.2 1,772
8 Nowolipie [pl] 14 III 113 4.7 36 1.5 460 19.3 224 9.4 1,546 65.0 2,379
9 Leszno [pl] 100 III 58 5.7 7 0.7 139 13.7 12 1.2 801 78.8 1,017
10 Dzika [pl] 12 IV 94 3.6 56 2.1 1,225 47.0 397 15.2 835 32.0 2,607
11 Gęsia [pl] 20 IV 67 3.6 17 0.9 783 41.8 151 8.1 854 45.6 1,862
12 Muranowska 34 IV 89 4.1 18 0.8 872 40.4 232 10.7 950 44.0 2,161
13 Nowokarmelicka 7 V 88 3.3 24 0.9 657 24.3 252 9.3 1,683 62.2 2,704
14 Pawia [pl] 68 V 34 3.4 1 0.1 99 9.9 16 1.6 848 85.0 998
15 Stawki [fr] 24 V 52 3.9 4 0.3 233 17.4 74 5.5 976 72.9 1,335
16 Młocińska 9 V 44 4.0 3 0.3 124 11.2 20 1.8 917 82.8 1,108
17 Ceglana [pl] 13 VI 117 5.4 12 0.6 281 13.0 133 6.1 1,620 74.9 2,163
18 Twarda [pl] 64 VI 112 5.9 7 0.4 369 19.5 126 6.7 1,276 67.5 1,890
19 Corner of Kolejowa [pl] and Karolkowa [pl] VI 69 5.2 5 0.4 214 16.1 42 3.2 999 75.2 1,329
20 Grzybowska [pl] 45 VII 146 6.0 21 0.9 508 20.8 227 9.3 1,543 63.1 2,445
21 Ciepła [pl] 26 VII 46 2.5 11 0.6 604 33.1 81 4.4 1,084 59.4 1,826
22 Chłodna [pl] 44 VII 85 4.5 12 0.6 379 20.3 53 2.8 1,340 71.7 1,869
23 Grzybowska [pl] 45 VII 63 4.8 3 0.2 178 13.5 31 2.4 1,043 79.1 1,318
24 Twarda [pl] 35 VIII 109 4.7 49 2.1 669 29.1 244 10.6 1,231 53.5 2,302
25 Sosnowa 13 VIII 152 6.3 35 1.4 455 18.8 273 11.3 1,508 62.2 2,423
26 Złota [pl] 58 VIII 132 5.7 42 1.8 411 17.8 209 9.1 1,514 65.6 2,308
27 Koszykowa [pl] 13 IX 164 11.6 29 2.1 131 9.3 274 19.4 813 57.6 1,411
28 Czerniakowska [pl] 72 IX 38 3.3 1 0.1 153 13.3 15 1.3 946 82.0 1,153
29 Chmielna [pl] 12 X 113 9.1 47 3.8 227 18.3 183 14.7 671 54.1 1,241
30 Świętokrzyska 27 X 146 10.1 67 4.6 309 21.3 224 15.4 704 48.6 1,450
31 Jerozolimska 14 X 117 6.3 18 1.0 249 13.5 153 8.3 1,314 71.0 1,851
32 Nowogrodzka [pl] 41 XI 157 8.0 47 2.4 334 16.9 388 19.7 1,048 53.1 1,974
33 Koszykowa [pl] 63 (Market halls) XI 192 9.5 24 1.2 387 19.1 227 11.2 1,194 59.0 2,024
34 Kotzebue [pl] 10 XII 89 8.5 81 7.7 226 21.6 130 12.4 521 49.8 1,047
35 Nowo-Miodowa 3 XII 151 7.0 65 3.0 536 24.9 157 7.3 1,241 57.7 2,150
36 Krucza [pl] 31 XIII 194 8.9 40 1.8 359 16.5 291 13.4 1,295 59.4 2,169
37 Nowy Świat 2 XIII 150 9.5 40 2.5 268 17.0 268 17.0 853 54.0 1,579
38 Ludna [pl] 16 XIII 27 3.6 4 0.5 75 10.0 23 3.1 623 82.8 752
39 Brukowa [pl] 2 XIV 102 6.9 2 0.1 223 15.0 44 3.0 1,113 75.0 1,384
40 Strzelecka [pl] 11 XIV 157 10.5 7 0.5 216 14.4 45 3.0 1,070 71.6 1,495
41 Brzeska [pl] 3 XV 110 5.9 10 0.5 481 25.6 84 4.5 1,194 63.5 2,179
42 Kamionkowska [pl] 17 XV 73 11.5 1 0.2 63 9.9 10 1.6 489 76.9 636
43 House of the Union of Consumer Associations, Mickiewicza Street, Mokotów XVI 186 9.7 6 0.3 350 18.3 1 0.1 1,370 71.6 1,913
44 Granzow Villa [pl], Grochów XVII 93 27.2 3 0.9 93 27.2 1 0.3 152 44.4 341
45 Sawicki steelworks, Pelcowizna [pl] XVIII 119 27.3 0 0.0 55 12.6 0 0.0 262 60.1 436
46 Górczewska [pl] 18, Koło-Budy XIX 65 17.2 0 0.0 64 16.9 0 0.0 250 66.0 379
47 Włodarczyk residence [de], Sielce and Czerniaków XX-XXI 214 28.8 4 0.5 95 12.8 0 0.0 431 57.9 744
48 Lilpop, Rau i Loewenstein factory, Wola XXII 140 16.9 4 0.5 119 14.3 1 0.1 566 68.2 830
49 Kaliska [pl] 60, Ochota and Czyste XXIII 123 16.3 0 0.0 125 16.5 0 0.0 508 67.2 756
50 Szczepanowski residence, Targówek XXIV 149 25.5 0 0.0 143 24.4 0 0.0 293 50.1 585
51 Urbanski residence, Nowe Bródno [pl] XXV 127 37.7 0 0.0 98 29.1 0 0.0 112 33.2 437
52 Suski residence, Gross estate, Powązki [ru] XXVI 172 29.4 1 0.2 88 15.0 0 0.0 325 55.5 586

[10][11][12][13][14][15]

The newspaper Kurjer Warszawski estimated that 55.86% of the eligible voters were Polish (Christians) and 44.14% Jews.[3] The newspaper made the following estimates for the voters of the First, Second, Fourth and Fifth curiae,

Curia Christians (%) Jews (%)
I 67.53 32.47
II 57.18 42.82
IV 40.82 59.18
V 49.20 50.80

[3]

Among the Polish right-wing, there were strong concerns about the German-imposed unequal curiae electoral system, as Jews were well represented in the first five curiae. In particular the Polish right-wing was worried about the Fourth Curia (merchants and artisans) where Jews were expected to dominate the vote. The announcement of the electoral ordinance prompted a campaign of harsh attacks against Jewish candidates in Gazeta Poranna 2 Grosze [pl] (a newspaper linked to National Democracy).[6][5][9] The attacks were especially targeted at the assimiliationists, questioning their Polish credentials.[6] Gazeta Poranna 2 Grosze was somewhat more conciliatory in its tone towards the Orthodox Jews, arguing that the Orthodox Jews did not get involved in Polish affairs and that they were "always remembering that this is a Polish country, not a Polish-Jewish country."[6]

The two Polish committees

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Leaflet of the Committee of First Curia Voters

The Central National Electoral Committee (Centralny Narodowy Komitet Wyborczy, abbreviated 'CNKW'), a coalition of right-wing forces that included the National Democratic Party, National Workers Union, the Christian Democratic Party and independents, called for a City Council that could function as City Parliament and would serve function as a model for the country.[6][16] As it would be the first elected body in Poland and as the assembly of the Polish capital, they hoped the City Council would be able to function as a national council in the process of moving toward independence.[2]

Another bloc was the Central Democratic Electoral Committee (Centralny Demokratyczny Komitet Wyborczy, CDKW), a coalition of leftist and centrist parties of the "independence camp".[1] They denounced anti-semitism but their agitation als included anti-Jewish slogans, calling to struggle against the threat posed by "Litvaks and Jewish social democracy".[6]

Launch of the Association of Jewish Voters

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On June 14, 1916, the Jewish parties established their own electoral committee, the Association of Jewish Voters. Before the beginning of World War I the Zionists had been the major Jewish faction in the city. But in August 1915, part of the Zionist leadership left the Kingdom of Poland. Weakened after the departure of their leaders, the Warsaw Zionists agreed to making an electoral alliance with other Jewish sectors. The Association of Jewish Voters was formed, including Orthodox Jews, Hasidim, neo-assimiliationists and non-partisan independents.[6]

The following day, the assimilationists published a proclamation in the press, calling on Warsaw residents to vote according to political views and that a separate Jewish electoral campaign should be avoided, in the name of Polish patriotism. It affirmed that the electoral regulation did not provide for any separate curiae based on nationality. About one hundred individuals signed the appealed, including Samuel Dickstein, Henryk Nusbaum [ru], Michał Bergsohn, Kazimierz Natanson [pl], Jan Natanson [pl] and Stanisław Aleksander Kempner [pl].[6]

Polish-Jewish pact

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Association of Jewish Voters leaflet, in Polish and Yiddish languages, calling on Jewish residents of Warsaw to support the joint slate in the 1st, 2nd, 4th and 5th Curiae

Largely, due to efforts by the assimilationists, there was a rapprochement between the Association of Jewish Voters and the Central Democratic Electoral Committee, and the two blocs moved towards a consensus solution on the divisions of City Council seats.[6][17] Eventually the Central National Electoral Committee got on board as well, and on June 30, 1916, an agreement was reached between the two Polish electoral committees (Central National Electoral Committee and Central Democratic Electoral Committee) and the Association of Jewish Voters.[6] The pact divided the seats in the First, Second, Fourth and Fifth Curiae; 26 seats for the National Electoral Committee, 19 seats for the Democratic Electoral Committee and 15 seats for the Jews (12 to the Association of Jewish Voters and 3 to the Bolesław Eiger group).[17][9][6][5] As the joint Polish-Jewish slate derived from this pact was the sole candidate list in the First, Second, Fourth and Fifth Curiae, no voting was conducted in these Curiae.[5]

In these negotiations, the Association of Jewish Voters had settled for a conservative number of Jewish seats.[16] They wanted to avoid a repeat of the aftermath of the 1912 Duma election, which had been used by the National Democracy to spark Polish-Jewish conflict.[18] In 1912, Jews in Warsaw had supported a Polish socialist candidate, and after the election there had been a backlash with boycott of Jewish businesses in the city.[19]

The signing of the pact was celebrated with a reception, with the participation of several German Jews from the occupation administration.[6] Jewish press outlets such as Der Hajnt lauded the pact, stating that for the first time Jews were recognized as political partners.[5] On the Polish side, the liberal publication Nowa Gazeta [pl] celebrated the pact as new union of citizens and beginning of harmony between communities.[5] Among the deputies that would be elected from the quota of the Association of Jewish Voters were Zionists (Farbstein, Poznański, Seideman), assimilationists (Eiger, Kirszrot, Weisblat, Natanson), neo-assimiliationists (Berenson, Goldflam, Mutermilch), Orthodox (Dawidsohn, Prywes, Wagmajster) and independents (Szereszowski, Truskier).[20]

Some Jewish national activists perceived the Polish-Jewish pact as a betrayal and decided to contest the Sixth Curia election in order to "save Jewish honor". A stormy meeting was held at the premises of the Association of Jewish Writers and Journalists on Tłomackie Street, during which the Jewish Popular Electoral Committee ('Folkskomitet') was founded. The committee was headed by Noach Pryłucki.[6][4] For the Folkists the real percentage of Jewish voters in the first five curiae were much greater than the proportion of Jewish seats allocated through the Polish-Jewish pact (the Folkists desired that 35% of the City Council seats be allocated to Jews).[8] The Polish-Jewish pact was also rejected by some Orthodox Jews.[9]

Third Curia election

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Decree by Imperial Electoral Commissar Jaraczewski to voters of the Third Curia
 
Propaganda for Zygmunt Makowiecki's candidature in the lawyers group, published in Goniec Poranny, calling on voters to cast all of their three votes on Makowiecki
 
City Hall (Jabłonowski Palace) where the Third Curia vote took place July 10-12, 1916
 
Entry ticket for Central Democratic Electoral Committee meeting held July 9, 1916 at the Philharmonic

Whilst there were attempts to agree on compromise candidate lists for the Third Curia, eventually competing candidacies emerged in some groups within the curia.[21] The voting for the elections in the Third Curia was held July 10-12, 1916 at the City Hall (Jabłonowski Palace).[21][22]

First Group – Catholic Clergy

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The vote in the Catholic clergy group held under supervision of Imperial Electoral Commissar Jaraczewski on July 12, 1916.[23] Out of 101 registered eligible voters, 70 voted.[24] The election in the clergy group was calm, without competition between candidacies.[23] 65 votes were cast in favour of Kazimierz Leon Bączkiewicz, Assessor of the Metropolitan Consistory, who was elected as the deputy in the Warsaw City Council representing the Catholic clergy.[24][25] 3 votes were cast in favour of Karol Bliziński (who was elected alternate member with 65 votes), one vote for Marceli Szkopowski (who was elected alternate member with 70 votes) and one vote for Karol Wesołowski.[24][25]

Second Group – Lawyers

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The lawyers group voted on July 11, 1916.[22] The election was overseen by Imperial Electoral Commissar Jaraczewski.[26] Out of 427 registered voters, 369 cast their ballots.[27] The candidatures in the fray were a democratic-independence oriented list led by Wacław Makowski [de], a politically neutral list organized by Feliks Ochimowski [pl] and an anti-democrat list.[21] The three elected deputies were the Goniec Poranny editor Zygmunt Makowiecki (270 votes), Makowski (252 votes) and the Central National Electoral Committee candidate Ignacy Baliński [ru] (226 votes).[21][27] Ochimowski obtained 222 votes.[27]

Third Group – Teachers

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The teachers' group voted under the supervision of Deputy Imperial Electoral Commissar Dziembowski on July 11, 1916.[26][22] Out of 346 registered voters, 266 cast their ballots.[27] The two elected deputies were Michał Archichowski (227 votes) and Józef Stypiński [pl] (132 votes).[27] Other candidates in the fray had been Klimek (121 votes) and Sosnowski (12 votes).[27] In the subgroup for faculty at Warsaw University there were 32 registered voters, out of whom 30 voted.[27] University rector Józef Brudziński was elected with 28 votes.[27] One vote was cast for Dean Alfons Parczewski [ru] (who was elected as one of the alternate members, with 32 votes) and one vote was cast for Professor Józef Mikułowski-Pomorski [ar].[27]

Fourth Group – Medical

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On July 8, 1916, the Democratic Physicians Committee met and agreed to endorse the candidatures of Dr. Witold Chodźko and Dr. Klemens Pawlikowski.[28] In the fourth group (physicians, dentists, veterinarians and pharmacists) the counting of votes cast was completed at 9 p.m. on July 10, 1916.[29] Out of 544 eligible voters, 458 had cast their ballots.[29] Jan Rutkowski was elected from a subgroup of pharmacists, receiving 557 votes.[21][29] Among the physicians the democratic candidate Dr. Witold Chodźko was elected with 379 votes whilst the national candidate Kazimierz Chełchowski [pl] was elected with 224 votes.[21] Other candidates were Dr. Bronisław Sawicki [pl] (182 votes), the pharmacist Władysław Żółtowski (9 votes – albeit he was elected alternate member with 650 votes), Dr. Wacław Męczkowski [pl] (6 votes), Dr. Kazimierz Rzętkowski [pl] (2 votes – albeit in the election for alternate member he was elected with 238 votes), Dr. Alf Bukowski (1 vote), Dr. Adam Kazimierz Przyborowski (1 vote) and Dr. Józef Pawiński (1 vote).[29]

Fifth Group – Engineers and Technicians

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The vote for the fifth group, which gathered engineers and technicians with higher education, was held under the supervision of the Deputy Imperial Election Commissar Dziembowski on July 12, 1916.[23] Out of 293 eligible voters, 265 cast their votes.[24] The election in the fifth group was quiet, without competition between different parties.[23] The architect Franciszek Lilpop [de] was elected with 260 votes and the engineer Antoni Ponikowski was elected with 248 votes.[24][25] The other candidates were the engineer Ignacy Radziszewski [pl] (19 votes, however he was elected as an alternate member of the City Council with 309 votes), the engineer J. Strassburger (2 votes) and the architect Czesław Domaniewski [pl] (1 vote, however he was elected alternate member with 71 votes).[25] In the subgroup of the faculty at Warsaw Technical College there were 11 registered voters, out of whom 10 voted.[24] All 10 votes were cast in favour of the engineer Henryk Korwin-Krukowski [pl], who was elected deputy.[24][25]

Sixth Group – Intellectuals

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Entry ticket for a Central National Electoral Committee meeting for the Sixth Group of the Third Curia election, held at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture on July 9, 1916

In the sixth group, which gathered students and other residents with higher education who did not belong to any of the other five groups of the Third Curia, the counting of votes cast was completed at 8 p.m. on July 10, 1916.[29] Out of 591 eligible voters, 466 had cast their ballots.[29] There were three candidate lists for this group – the list of the Central Democratic Electoral Committee with two candidates, the list of Władysław Studnicki which also had a democratic-independence orientation and the list of the Central National Electoral Committee with a single candidate. The democratic candidate Artur Śliwiński was elected with 312 votes. The sole Central National Electoral Committee candidate Bolesław Koskowski [pl] was elected with 359 votes. Studnicki got 102 votes and Bolesław Lutomski [pl] got 151 votes.[21][29]

Sixth Curia election

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Decree by the Imperial Electoral Commissar Jaraczewski to Sixth Curia voters in 7 electoral districts, instructing them to vote either on July 13 or July 14 depending on the first letter of their surname.
 
Full listing of candidates of the six lists contesting in the Sixth Curia election
 
Sixth Curia election, the most voted list in each Militia District. Pink = List I, Red = List III, Orange = List IV, Blue = List V

50,549 Warsaw residents were listed as voters of the Sixth Curia.[30] Six candidate lists were in the fray. The Central Democratic Electoral Committee backed List I of the Polish Socialist Party – Revolutionary Faction (PPS-Frakcja).[31] List II was put forth by the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL, Marxist Social Democracy).[30]

 
Lebensfragen, July 13, 1916 issue, calling for a vote for the Socialist Bloc List III
 
Appeal in Der Moment July 13, 1916 issue, calling for a vote for List IV in the Sixth Curia election
 
Front page of Hajnt July 13, 1916 issue, with appeal for voters to support List VI in the Sixth Curia election

The General Jewish Labour Bund formed an electoral bloc together with the Polish Socialist Party – Left (PPS-Lewica).[6] The Bund had encountered some difficulty to draft a list of candidates due to the requirements of age (candidates had to be at least 30 years old) and Polish language fluency.[5] The Bund used the electoral campaign to rally against nationalism and antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism functioned as a tool used by Jewish bourgeois nationalists to defend their class interests. Bund called for Jewish cultural rights, the right to use Yiddish language in interaction with government institutions and recognition of Yiddish schools.[5] The Poale Zion didn't contest the election but supported the Bund/PPS-Lewica socialist bloc.[2]

List IV was put forth by the Folkskomitet. Whilst the Folkists opposed the Polish-Jewish pact, they didn't wish to sabotage it as such and thus contested only the Sixth Curia election.[5] The Folkist electoral campaign had a confrontational tone.[6] The Folkist press appeals called on Jewish voters to reject the assimiliationists', Zionists' and Orthodox aspirations to illusory peace with the Poles.[5] The newspapers Der Moment and Warszewer Togblat were supportive of Folkist electoral campaign, whilst on the other end of the Jewish political spectrum articles in Der Hajnt repeatedly labelled Pryłucki as an opportunist and a liar.[5][6]

List V was the list of the National Workers Committee.[32] List VI was the list of the Association of Jewish Voters, which did not raise Jewish national demands in their electoral campaign (rather supporting equal civil and religious rights in general).[16]

The voting days were tumultuous, with many manifestations occurring. Deutsche Warschauer Zeitung [pl] reported that Sixth Curia voters were harassed by political campaigners across the city.[4] Nowa Gazeta wrote that "[v]ery heated, sometimes passionate agitation is taking place in front of election offices, especially in working-class districts and in districts with a predominant Jewish population. Delegates of various parties distribute their proclamations by the hundreds. Also noteworthy are the large cardboard placards held on sticks. Scouts with the words "4" on their caps cause a certain sensation in Jewish districts."[33]

Overall, the voting closed at 8 p.m. on July 14, 1916, but in some instances where voters presented late voting extended by a few minutes.[31] There were two commissions to count the votes and compile the result, one led by Imperial Electoral Commissar Jaraczewski and one led by his deputy Dziembowski.[32] Members of the commissions included Marek Borkowski, Antoni Wysocki, count Roger Łubieński, Wł. Tomaszewski, Adolf Weisblat, Dr. Witold Chodźko, Leonard Tallen-Wilczewski, Goldstein, Wacław Makowski [de], Paweł Nowicki, Wł. Śląski and Tomasz Arciszewski.[32] All in all, 36,781 valid votes were cast which represented 72% of the electorate.[32][30] The invalid votes were around 1,300 in total.[34]

Pryłucki and the Folkskomitet were the big winners among the Jewish parties in the Sixth Curia election.[2] Gazeta Poranna 2 Grosze decried the election result as an 'extreme victory' for Jewish nationalism.[8] The four Folkists elected to the City Council were Pryłucki, Samuel Hirszhorn, B. Efron and the painter Abram Eisenberg.[5] The sole Socialist Bloc candidate elected belonged to PPS-Lewica, leaving the Bund without representation in the City Council.[2]

Results

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Results in the election for the Sixth Curia of the Warsaw City Council, 1916
List Votes % Seats won
List V – National Democracy and allies 13,988 38.03% 7
List IV – Folkskomitet 8,611 23.41% 4
List I – Polish Socialist Party – Revolutionary Faction 5,916 16.08% 2
List III – General Jewish Labour Bund and Polish Socialist Party – Left 3,711 10.09% 1
List II – Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania 2,631 7.15% 1
List VI – Association of Jewish Voters 1,924 5.23% 0

[5][16][30]

Results in the Sixth Curia by Electoral District
Results in the Sixth Curia election by Militia Commissariat

Elected deputies

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The new city council was inaugurated on July 24, 1916.[4] In his inaugural speech mayor Lubormirski called on the elected City Councilors to work for the interest of the population without "distinction of status or religion".[20]

Name Curia Profession Affiliation
Zdzisław Lubomirski[i] I Mayor Central National Electoral Committee
Józef Prüffer I Engineer Central National Electoral Committee
Adolf Suligowski [pl] I Lawyer Central National Electoral Committee
Józef Zawadzki [pl] I Physician Central National Electoral Committee
Marek Borkowski I Notary Central National Electoral Committee
Leon Babiński I Physician Central National Electoral Committee
Stefan Bystydzieński I Engineer Central National Electoral Committee
Stanisław Libicki [pl] I Lawyer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Piotr Pręgowski [pl] I Physician Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Stanisław Tarczyński I Chemist Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Kazimierz Żukowski I Merchant Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Jan Wanke I Estate owner Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Edward Natanson [pl] I Engineer Association of Jewish Voters
Lejzor-Luzer Prywes I Estate owner Association of Jewish Voters
Rafał Szereszowski [pl] I Bank owner Association of Jewish Voters
Piotr Drzewiecki[ii] II Engineer Central National Electoral Committee
Stanisław Karpiński II Bank director Central National Electoral Committee
Feliks Pawłowski II Merchant Central National Electoral Committee
Antoni Rząd [ru] II Physician Central National Electoral Committee
Edward Geisler [pl] II Industrialist Central National Electoral Committee
Antoni Wysocki II Director at K. Rudzki i S-ka Central National Electoral Committee
Stanisław Gustaw Brun [pl] II Merchant Central National Electoral Committee
Michał Łempicki II Engineer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Teodor Toeplitz [pl] II Industrialist Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Stanisław Śliwiński [ru] II Engineer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Stanisław Patek II Lawyer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Cezary Łagiewski II Economist Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Bolesław Eiger II Industrialist Association of Jewish Voters
Leon-Lejbus Dawidsohn II Merchant Association of Jewish Voters
Szyja-Heszel Farbstein [pl] II Merchant Association of Jewish Voters
Kazimierz Leon Bączkiewicz III (I) Roman Catholic Priest
Zygmunt Makowiecki III (II) Lawyer
Wacław Makowski [de] III (II) Lawyer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Ignacy Baliński [ru] III (II) Lawyer Central National Electoral Committee
Józef Brudziński III (III) Rector of the University of Warsaw
Michał Archichowski III (III) Teacher
Józef Stypiński [pl] III (III) Teacher Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Jan Rutkowski III (IV) Pharmacist
Witold Chodźko III (IV) Physician Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Kazimierz Chełchowski [pl] III (IV) Physician Central National Electoral Committee
Henryk Korwin-Krukowski [pl] III (V) Engineer and Assistant Professor
Franciszek Lilpop [de] III (V) Architect
Antoni Ponikowski III (V) Engineer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Bolesław Koskowski [pl] III (VI) Publicist Central National Electoral Committee
Artur Śliwiński III (VI) Writer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Stanisław Lipczyński [pl] IV Engraver Central National Electoral Committee
Ignacy Rupiewicz IV Industrialist Central National Electoral Committee
Antoni Hurkiewicz IV Printer Central National Electoral Committee
Konrad Ilski IV PhD in Social Sciences Central National Electoral Committee
Antoni Mencel IV Locksmith foreman Central National Electoral Committee
Aleksander de Rosset [pl] IV Engineer Central National Electoral Committee
Kazimierz Wąsowicz IV Bricklayer foreman Central National Electoral Committee
Wincenty Sikorski IV Taylor foreman Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Ludwik Zieliński IV Merchant Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Seweryn Świecki IV Shoemaker Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Adolf Weisblat IV Engineer Association of Jewish Voters
Salomon Seidenman [pl] IV Lawyer Association of Jewish Voters
Juliusz Mutermilch [pl] IV Physician Association of Jewish Voters
Leon Berenson [ru] IV Lawyer Association of Jewish Voters
Abram Adolf Truskier [pl] IV Industrialist Association of Jewish Voters
Konrad Czerwiński V Trader Central National Electoral Committee
Wacław Łypacewicz [pl] V Lawyer Central National Electoral Committee
Władysław Piechowski V Lawyer Central National Electoral Committee
Czesław Brzeziński V Lawyer Central National Electoral Committee
Władysław Kwasieborski V Engineer Central National Electoral Committee
Marjan Zbrowski [pl] V Lawyer Central National Electoral Committee
Wacław Sieroszewski V Writer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Ludomir Grendyszyńsk V Writer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Eugeniusz Śmiarowski [pl] V Lawyer Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Lucyan Kobyłecki V Bank clerk Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Marjan Grotowski [pl] V Teacher Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Jan Rogowicz [pl] V Architect Central Democratic Electoral Committee
Samuel Abraham Poznański V Rabbi Association of Jewish Voters
Samuel Goldflam V Physician Association of Jewish Voters
Joel Wegmeister [pl] V Merchant Association of Jewish Voters
Tomasz Arciszewski VI Chairman of the Metal Workers Trade Union [pl] List I – PPS-Frakcja
Gustaw Daniłowski [hy] VI Writer List I – PPS-Frakcja
Jan Kronberg VI Leather Industry Workers Trade Union leader[iii][36] List II – SDKPiL
Józef Ciszewski [ru] VI Engineer List III – PPS-Lewica
Noach Pryłucki VI Lawyer and editor List IV – Folkskomitet
Benjamin Efron VI Engineer List IV – Folkskomitet
Samuel Hirszhorn VI Editor List IV – Folkskomitet
Abram Eisenberg VI Sculptor List IV – Folkskomitet
Michał Lustański VI Journeyman brewer List V – National Workers Committee
Stanisław Tymiński VI Shoemaker List V – National Workers Committee
Stanisław Nowodworski [ru] VI Lawyer List V – National Workers Committee
Jan Karol Szczeblewski VI Publicist List V – National Workers Committee
Edmund Bernatowicz VI Chiseler List V – National Workers Committee
Ludwik Śliwiński VI Locksmith List V – National Workers Committee
Józef Szyc VI Saddler List V – National Workers Committee

[37][38][3]

Alternate members elected from the Sixth Curia election included Ludwik Gdyk [pl] (List V), Norbert Barlicki (PPS-Frakcja), Władysław Kowalski [pl] (SDKPiL), Franciszek Truskier [pl] (SDKPiL) and Lucjan Rudnicki (SDKPiL).[39]

Notes

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  1. ^ Lubomirski gave up his seat as he was elected as Mayor by the City Council, his seat was filled by Cels Fabiani
  2. ^ Drzewiecki gave up his seat as he was elected as Deputy Mayor by the City Council, his seat was filled by Wacław Kirszrot
  3. ^ Jan Kronberg (1886–1922) was listed as Garbarz ('Porter') by the electoral authorities, but 'Garbarz' was his party name. He was arrested in November 1916 and exiled to Havelberg and Modlin.

References

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  1. ^ a b c Robert E. Blobaum. A Minor Apocalypse: Warsaw during the First World War. Cornell University Press, 2017.
  2. ^ a b c d e Edward Madigan, Gideon Reuveni. The Jewish Experience of the First World War. Springer, 2018. p. 76
  3. ^ a b c d Wybory do rady miejskiej, in Kurjer Warszawski, July 5, 1916. pp. 1-2
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jesse Kauffman. Elusive Alliance. Harvard University Press, 2015. pp. 125-127, 130
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Kalman Weiser, Keith Ian Weiser. Jewish People, Yiddish Nation: Noah Prylucki and the Folkists in Poland. University of Toronto Press, 2011. pp. 140-141, 144-146
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Jerzy Tomaszewski. Najnowsze dzieje Żydów w Polsce: w zarysie (do 1950 roku). Wydawn. Naukowe PWN, 1993. pp. 128-130
  7. ^ a b Juliusz A. Chrościcki, Andrzej Rottermund. Atlas of Warsaw's Architecture. Arkady, 1978. p. 30
  8. ^ a b c Glenn Dynner, François Guesnet. Warsaw. The Jewish Metropolis: Essays in Honor of the 75th Birthday of Professor Antony Polonsky. BRILL, 2015. pp. 291-292
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Zieliński, Konrad. The Poles and the Jews in the Local Authorities of the Kingdom of Poland during the First World War. Iggud: Selected Essays in Jewish Studies, vol. 2005, p. 123-134
  10. ^ a b c d Statystyka wyborcow do wzystkich kurji, in Goniec Poranny, June 27, 1916. p. 1
  11. ^ Przed wyborami do rady miejskiej in Kurjer Warszawski, June 6, 1916. p. 1
  12. ^ Przed wyborami do rady miejskiej in Kurjer Warszawski, June 6, 1916. p. 4
  13. ^ Wybory do rady miejskiej in Kurjer Warszawski, June 8, 1916. p. 1
  14. ^ Przed wyborami do rady miejskiej in Kurjer Warszawski, June 8, 1916. p. 3
  15. ^ דיִ וואַהל-בּיוּרעם, in דער מאמענט, July 13, 1916. p. 3
  16. ^ a b c d Marian Marek Drozdowski. Warszawa w latach 1914–1939. Państwowe Wydawn. Nauk., 1991. p. 43
  17. ^ a b Biuletyn Zydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego. Żydowski Instytut Historyczny w Polsce, 2003. p. 171
  18. ^ Antony Polonsky. The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History. Liverpool University Press, 2013. p. 179
  19. ^ Tracey Hayes Norrell. For the Honor of Our Fatherland: German Jews on the Eastern Front during the Great War. Lexington Books, 2017. p. 67
  20. ^ a b Marian Fuks. Żydzi w Warszawie: życie codzienne, wydarzenia, ludzie. Sorus, 1992. p. 266
  21. ^ a b c d e f g Wyniki w Kuryi III, in Nowa Gazeta, July 13, 1916. p. 1
  22. ^ a b c Wybory do rady miejskiej, in Kurjer Warszawski, July 9, 1916. p. 6
  23. ^ a b c d Wybory do Rady Miejskiej, in Goniec Wieczorny, July 12, 1916. p. 3
  24. ^ a b c d e f g Wybory do Rady Miejskiej, in Goniec Poranny, July 13, 1916. p. 2
  25. ^ a b c d e Wybory do rady miejskiej, in Kurjer Warszawski, July 13, 1916. p. 1
  26. ^ a b Wybory do Rady Miejskiej, in Goniec Wieczorny, July 11, 1916. p. 3
  27. ^ a b c d e f g h i Wybory do Rady Miejskiej, in Goniec Poranny, July 12, 1916. p. 1
  28. ^ Wybory do Rady Miejskiej in Przegląd Poranny, July 9, 1916. p. 3
  29. ^ a b c d e f g Wynik wyborów do III-ej kurji, in Goniec Poranny, July 11, 1916. p. 2
  30. ^ a b c d Ergebnis der Stadtwahlen in der VI kurie. Deutsche Warschauer Zeitung, July 16, 1916. p. 5
  31. ^ a b Wybory do Rady Miejskiej, in Goniec Poranny, July 15, 1916. p. 2
  32. ^ a b c d e Wybory do rady miejskiej. Kurjer Warszawski, July 16, 1916. pp. 4-5
  33. ^ Ruch wyborczy in Nowa Gazeta, July 13, 1916. p. 2
  34. ^ Wybory do Rady Miejskiej, in Goniec Wieczorny, July 15, 1916. p. 3
  35. ^ Wynik wyborów w kurji VI in Przegląd Wieczorny, July 16, 1916. p. 1
  36. ^ Krzysztof Dunin-Wąsowicz. Warszawa 1914–1918. Państwowe Wydawn. Nauk., 1989. p. 128
  37. ^ Otwarcie Rady Miejskiej in Dziennik Zarządu Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy, July 24, 1916
  38. ^ Przed otwarciem Rady Miejskiej, in Gazeta Poranna 2 Grosze, July 24, 1916, p. 2
  39. ^ Wybory do 6-ej kurji, in Goniec Poranny, July 16, 1916. p. 3