User:SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits/Government of Sumer

Government and administration

Kingship

Titles

Local government

Each city was centered around a temple that was dedicated to a particular patron deity. A city was governed by both/either a "lugal" (king) and/or an "ensi" (priest). It was understood that rulers were determined by the deity of the city and rule could be transferred from one city to another. Hegemony from the Nippur priesthood moved between competing dynasties of the Sumerian cities. Traditionally, these included Eridu, Bad-tibira, Larsa, Sippar, Shuruppak, Kish, Uruk, Ur, Adab, and Akshak. Other relevant cities from outside the Tigris–Euphrates river system included Hamazi, Awan (in present-day Iran), and Mari (in present-day Syria but which is credited on the SKL as having "exercised kingship" during the ED II period).

Thorkild Jacobsen defined a "primitive democracy" with reference to Sumerian epics, myths, and historical records. He described a form of government determined by a majority of men who were free citizens. There was little specialisation and only a loose power structure. Kings such as Gilgamesh of the first dynasty of Uruk did not yet hold an autocracy. Rather, they governed together with councils of elders and councils of younger men, who were likely free men bearing arms. Kings would consult the councils on all major decisions, including whether to go to war. Jacobsen's definition of a democracy as a relationship between primitive monarchs and men of the noble classes has been questioned. Jacobsen conceded that the available evidence could not distinguish a "Mesopotamian democracy" from a "primitive oligarchy".

Kingdoms

"Lugal" is a Sumerian term for "king" or "ruler". Literally, the term means "big man." In Sumerian, "lú" is "man" and "gal" is "great", or "big." It was one of several Sumerian titles that a ruler of a city-state could bear, alongside "en" and "ensi". The exact difference between these titles is a subject of debate.

The sign "lugal" eventually became the predominant logograph for "king" in general. In the Sumerian language, "lugal" is used to mean an owner (e.g., of a boat or a field) or a head (of a unit such as a family). The cuneiform sign "lugal" serves as a determinative in cuneiform texts (Sumerian, Akkadian, and Hittite), indicating that the following word is the name of a king.

There are different theories regarding the meaning of the title "lugal" in third millennium BCE Sumer. Some scholars believe that a ruler of an individual city-state was usually called "ensi", and a ruler who headed a confederacy or larger dominion composed of several cities, perhaps even the whole of Sumer, was a "lugal". The functions of such a "lugal" would include certain ceremonial and cultic activities, arbitration in border disputes, military defense against external enemies, and once the "lugal" has died, the eldest son must take over.

Other scholars consider "ensi", "en", and "lugal" to have been merely three local designations for the sovereign, accepted respectively in the city-states of Lagash, Uruk, and Ur (as well as most of the rest of Sumer), although the various terms may have expressed different aspects of the Mesopotamian concept of kingship. A "lugal" at that time is assumed to have been "normally a young man of outstanding qualities from a rich landowning family".

Governorships

The term "ensi" was a Sumerian title that designated the ruler or prince of a city-state. Originally, it might have referred to an independent ruler, but in later periods, the title assumed subordination to a "lugal" The "ensi" was considered a representative of the city-state’s tutelary deity. In later periods, an "ensi" was typically seen as subordinate to a "lugal". However, even powerful rulers like Gudea of the second dynasty of Lagash were content with the title "ensi". During the Ur III period, "ensi". referred to the provincial governors of the kingdom.

Lordships

The term "en" is the Sumerian cuneiform for "lord" or "priest". It was originally used to designate a high priest or priestess of a Sumerian city-state’s patron deity, a position that also entailed political power. This term may have been the original title of the ruler of Uruk.

Central government

This early empire-building was encouraged as the most powerful monarchs were often rewarded with the most prestigious titles, such as the title of "lugal". Most of these early rulers had probably acquired these titles rather than inherited them. Eventually this quest to be more prestigious and powerful than the other city-states resulted in a general ambition for universal rule. Since Mesopotamia was equated to correspond to the entire world and Sumerian cities had been built far and wide (cities the like of Susa, Mari, and Assur were located near the perceived corners of the world) it seemed possible to reach the edges of the world (at this time thought to be the lower sea, the Persian gulf, and the upper sea, the Mediterranean). Rulers attempting to reach a position of universal rule became more common during the ED during which two prominent examples are attested.

The earliest days of Mesopotamian empire-building was most often a struggle between the kings of the most prominent cities. In these early days, the title of "king of Kish" was recognized as one of particular prestige, with the city of Kish being seen as having a sort of primacy over the other cities. By the Early Dynastic (ED) period (c. 2900 – c. 2350 BCE), "king of Kish" meant a divinely authorized ruler with the right to rule over all of Sumer, and it might have somewhat referred to a universal ruler. Use of the title, which was not limited to kings actually in possession of the city itself, implied that the ruler was a builder of cities, victorious in war and a righteous judge. According to the Sumerian King List (SKL), the city of Kish was where the kingship was lowered to from heaven after the Flood, its rulers being the embodiment of human kingship.

During the ED period, the rulers of the various city-states (the most prominent being: Kish, Uruk, Ur, Lagash, and Umma) in the region would often launch invasions into regions and cities far from their own, at most times with negligible consequences for themselves, in order to establish temporary and small empires to either gain or keep a superior position relative to the other city-states.

The first, Lugalannemundu, king of Adab, is claimed by the SKL (though this is a much later inscription, making the extensive rule of Lugalennemundu somewhat doubtful) to have created a great empire covering the entirety of Mesopotamia, reaching from modern Syria to Iran, saying that he "subjugated the Four Corners". The second, Lugalzaggesi, king of Uruk, conquered the entirety of Lower Mesopotamia and claimed (despite this not being the case) that his domain extended from the upper to the lower sea. Lugalzaggesi was originally titled as simply "King of Uruk" and adopted the title "King of the Land" to lay claim to universal rule. This title had also been employed by some earlier Sumerian kings claiming control over all of Sumer, such as Enshakushanna of Uruk.

Imperial and royal hierarchy

Role, position, purpose, and/or equivalent	Example user(s)
Emperor	Erridupizir of Gutium (r. c. 2218 – c. 2211 BCE) Utu-hengal of Uruk (r. c. 2119 – c. 2112 BCE) Hammurabi of Babylon (r. c. 1792 – c. 1750 BCE)
King-Emperor	Ur-Nammu of Ur (r. c. 2112 – c. 2094 BCE) Shulgi of Ur (r. c. 2094 – c. 2046 BCE) Amar-Suen of Ur (r. c. 2046 – c. 2037 BCE) Shu-Suen of Ur (r. c. 2037 – c. 2028 BCE) Ibbi-Suen of Ur (r. c. 2028 – c. 2004 BCE) Ishbi-Erra of Isin (r. c. 2018 – c. 1985 BCE) Shu-Ilishu of Isin (r. c. 1985 – c. 1975 BCE) Iddin-Dagan of Isin (r. c. 1975 – c. 1954 BCE) Ishme-Dagan of Isin (r. c. 1954 – c. 1934 BCE) Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (r. c. 1934 – c. 1923 BCE) Ur-Ninurta of Isin (r. c. 1923 – c. 1895 BCE) Bur-Suen of Isin (r. c. 1895 – c. 1874 BCE) Lipit-Enlil of Isin (r. c. 1874 – c. 1869 BCE) Erra-imitti of Isin (r. c. 1869 – c. 1861 BCE) Enlil-bani of Isin (r. c. 1861 – c. 1837 BCE) Sin-Iddinam of Larsa (r. c. 1850 – c. 1843 BCE) Rim-Sîn I of Larsa (r. c. 1823 – c. 1763 BCE)
Great king	Enmebaragesi of Kish (r. c. 2750 – c. 2700 BCE) Aga of Kish (r. c. 2700 – c. 2585 BCE) Mesilim of Kish (r. c. 2585 – c. 2510 BCE) Lugalnamniršumma of Uruk (r. c. 2510 – c. 2470 BCE) Lugalsilâsi I of Uruk (r. c. 2470 – c. 2445 BCE) Meskalamdug of Ur (r. c. 2445 – c. 2430 BCE) Eannatum of Lagash (r. c. 2430 – c. 2425 BCE) Mesannepada of Ur (r. c. 2425 – c. 2420 BCE) Urzage of Uruk (r. c. 2420 – c. 2400 BCE) Lugalkinishedudu of Uruk (r. c. 2400 – c. 2375 BCE) Lugal-kisalsi of Uruk (r. c. 2375 – c. 2350 BCE) Enshakushanna of Uruk (r. c. 2350 – c. 2348 BCE) Lugalzaggesi of Uruk (r. c. 2348 – c. 2334 BCE) Sargon of Akkad (r. c. 2334 – c. 2279 BCE) Rimush of Akkad (r. c. 2279 – c. 2270 BCE) Ipiq-Adad II of Eshnunna (r. c. 1862 – c. 1816 BCE) Naram-Suen of Eshnunna (r. c. 1816 – c. 1798 BCE) Shamshi-Adad I of Assur (r. c. 1816 – c. 1809 BCE) Dadusha of Eshnunna (r. c. 1790 – c. 1779 BCE) Zimri-Lim of Mari (r. c. 1776 – c. 1761 BCE)
High king	Puzur-Suen of Kish (r. c. 2365 – c. 2340 BCE) Ur-Zababa of Kish (r. c. 2340 – c. 2334 BCE) Manishtushu of Akkad (r. c. 2270 – c. 2255 BCE) Dudu of Akkad (r. c. 2190 – c. 2169 BCE) Shu-turul of Akkad (r. c. 2169 – c. 2154 BCE) Sarlagab of Gutium (r. c. 2202 – c. 2196 BCE) Elulmesh of Gutium (r. c. 2190 – c. 2184 BCE) La-erabum of Gutium (r. c. 2148 – c. 2146 BCE) Irarum of Gutium (r. c. 2146 – c. 2144 BCE) Ibranum of Gutium (r. c. 2144 – c. 2143 BCE) Hablum of Gutium (r. c. 2143 – c. 2141 BCE) Puzur-Suen of Gutium (r. c. 2141 – c. 2134 BCE) Yarlaganda of Gutium (r. c. 2134 – c. 2127 BCE) Siium of Gutium (r. c. 2127 – c. 2120 BCE) Tirigan of Gutium (r. c. 2120 – c. 2119 BCE) Zambiya of Isin (r. c. 1837 – c. 1834 BCE) Iter-pisha of Isin (r. c. 1834 – c. 1830 BCE) Ur-du-kuga of Isin (r. c. 1830 – c. 1826 BCE) Suen-magir of Isin (r. c. 1826 – c. 1815 BCE) Damiq-ilishu of Isin (r. c. 1815 – c. 1792 BCE)
King	Ur-Pabilsag of Ur (r. c. 2570 – c. 2550 BCE) Akalamdug of Ur (r. c. 2485 – c. 2455 BCE) A'annepada of Ur (r. c. 2420 – c. 2405 BCE) Elulu of Ur (r. c. 2375 – c. 2350 BCE) Balulu of Ur (r. c. 2252 – c. 2216 BCE) Urnanshe of Lagash (r. c. 2520 – c. 2466 BCE) Lugalanda of Lagash (r. c. 2359 – c. 2353 BCE) Urukagina of Lagash (r. c. 2353 – c. 2342 BCE) Ur-Lumma of Umma (r. c. 2437 – c. 2425 BCE) Il of Umma (r. c. 2425 – c. 2413 BCE) Gishakidu of Umma (r. c. 2413 – c. 2408 BCE) Lugaldalu of Adab (r. c. 2500 – c. 2485 BCE) Iddin-Sin of Simurrum (r. c. 2240 – c. 2220 BCE) Anubanini of Lulubum (r. c. 2220 – c. 2154 BCE) Gungunum of Larsa (r. c. 1932 – c. 1905 BCE) Abisare of Larsa (r. c. 1905 – c. 1894 BCE) Sumuel of Larsa (r. c. 1894 – c. 1865 BCE) Nur-Adad of Larsa (r. c. 1865 – c. 1850 BCE) Sin-Eribam of Larsa (r. c. 1843 – c. 1841 BCE) Sin-Iqisham of Larsa (r. c. 1841 – c. 1836 BCE) Silli-Adad of Larsa (r. c. 1836 – c. 1835 BCE)
Governor	Nin-kisalsi of Adab (r. c. 2550 – c. 2530 BCE) E-iginimpa'e of Adab (r. c. 2455 – c. 2445 BCE) Mug-si of Adab (r. c. 2445 – c. 2430 BCE) Meskigal of Adab (r. c. 2530 – c. 2530 BCE) Eshpum of Elam (r. c. 2315 – c. 2255 BCE) Lugal-ushumgal of Lagash (r. c. 2230 – c. 2210 BCE) Puzer-Mama of Lagash (r. c. 2210 – c. 2208 BCE) Ur-Ningirsu I of Lagash (r. c. 2208 – c. 2200 BCE) Pirig-me of Lagash (r. c. 2200 – c. 2193 BCE) Ur-Baba of Lagash (r. c. 2164 – c. 2144 BCE) Gudea of Lagash (r. c. 2144 – c. 2124 BCE) Ur-Ningirsu II of Lagash (r. c. 2124 – c. 2119 BCE) Ur-gar of Lagash (r. c. 2119 – c. 2113 BCE) Nam-mahani of Lagash (r. c. 2113 – c. 2110 BCE) Lugalannatum of Umma (r. c. 2148 – c. 2113 BCE)
Military governor	Ili-ishmani of Elam (r. c. 2230 – c. 2199 BCE) Epirmupi of Elam (r. c. 2199 – c. 2154 BCE) Puzur-Inshushinak of Elam (r. c. 2154 – c. 2078 BCE) Ishma-Dagan of Mari (r. c. 2199 – c. 2154 BCE) Nûr-Mêr of Mari (r. c. 2153 – c. 2148 BCE) Ishtup-Ilum of Mari (r. c. 2147 – c. 2136 BCE) Ishgum-Addu of Mari (r. c. 2135 – c. 2127 BCE) Apil-kin of Mari (r. c. 2126 – c. 2091 BCE) Iddi-ilum of Mari (r. c. 2090 – c. 2085 BCE) Ili-Ishar of Mari (r. c. 2084 – c. 2072 BCE) Tura-Dagan of Mari (r. c. 2071 – c. 2051 BCE) Puzur-Ishtar of Mari (r. c. 2050 – c. 2025 BCE) Hanun-Dagan of Mari (r. c. 2016 – c. 2008 BCE)
Lord	Meshkiangasher of Uruk (r. c. 2792 – c. 2775 BCE) Enmerkar of Uruk (r. c. 2775 – c. 2725 BCE) Gilgamesh of Uruk (r. c. 2670 – c. 2650 BCE)
Queen	Puabi of Ur (r. c. 2445 – c. 2430 BCE) Baranamtarra of Lagash (r. c. 2359 – . 2353 BCE) Tashlultum of Akkad (r. c. 2334 – . 2279 BCE)
Prince

Theocratic hierarchy

Role, position, purpose, and/or equivalent	Example user(s)
God-King	Lugalbanda of Uruk (r. c. 2725 – c. 2700 BCE) Dumuzid of Uruk (r. c. 2700 – c. 2670 BCE) Gilgamesh of Uruk (r. c. 2670 – c. 2650 BCE)
God-Emperor	Naram-Suen of Akkad (r. c. 2255 – c. 2218 BCE)
Priest-King	Mesannepada of Ur (fl. c. 2430 – c. 2420 BCE)
High priest
High priestess
Priest	Sharrumiter of Mari (fl. c. 2373 – c. 2364 BCE)
Priestess	Enheduanna of Akkad (fl. c. 2285 – c. 2250 BCE)

Military

Military hierarchy and ranks

Role, position, purpose, and/or equivalent	Example user(s)
Commander
Captain	Ebih-Il (fl. c. 2520 – c. 2445 BCE)
Troop

References

Sources

Bibliography

• Cooper, Jerrold S. (1999). Sumerian and Semitic Writing in Most Ancient Syro-Mesopotamia. Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse studies. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Crawford, Harriet (2013-08-29). The Sumerian World. Routledge. ISBN 9781136219122. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Edzard, Dietz-Otto (2004). Geschichte Mesopotamiens: von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Grossen. C.H. Beck. ISBN 9783406516641. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Halloran, John Alan (2002). Sumerian Lexicon: A Dictionary Guide to the Ancient Sumerian Language. Logogram Pub. ISBN 9780978642907. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Jacobsen, Thorkild (1957). Early Political Development in Mesopotamia. W. de Gruyter. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Liverani, Mario (2013-12-04). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Routledge. ISBN 9781134750849. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Maeda, Tohru (1981). "KING OF KISH" IN PRE-SARGONIC SUMER (Report). Vol. 17. Waseda University, Japan. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• McIntosh, Jane (2005). Weeks, J. (ed.). Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576079652. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey; McKnight, Edgar V. (1990). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865543737. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Robinson, Eric W. (1997). The First Democracies: Early Popular Government Outside Athens. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 9783515069519. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Saggs, Henry William Frederick (1988). The Greatness that was Babylon: A Survey of the Ancient Civilization of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 9780283996238. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Saggs, Henry William Frederick (1995). Babylonians. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806127651. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• van de Mieroop, Marc (2003-06-09). A History of the Ancient Near East. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Vol. 1. Wiley-Blackwell (published 2003–2004). ISBN 9780631225515. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Westenholz, Aage (2002). Hansen, Mogens Herman (ed.). A Comparative Study of Six City-state Cultures: An Investigation. Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. ISBN 9788778763167. Retrieved 2024-01-25.

Journals

• Bailkey, Nels (1967). "Early Mesopotamian Constitutional Development". The American Historical Review. 72 (4): 1211–1236. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Isakhan, Benjamin (2007). "Engaging "Primitive Democracy," Mideast Roots of Collective Governance". Middle East Policy. XXIV (3): 97–117. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Jacobsen, Thorkild (1943). "Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. II (3): 159–172. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Kesecker, Nshan (2018). "Lugalzagesi: The First Emperor of Mesopotamia?". ARAMAZD Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. XII (1). Retrieved 2024-01-25.
• Marchesi, Gianni (2015). Sallaberger, Walther; Schrakamp, Ingo (eds.). "Toward a Chronology of Early Dynastic Rulers in Mesopotamia". History and Philology (ARCANE 3; Turnhout).
• Michalowski, Piotr (2008). Brisch, Nicole (ed.). "The Mortal Kings of Ur: A Short Century of Divine Rule in Ancient Mesopotamia" (PDF). 4. The Oriental Institute: 33. Retrieved 2024-01-25. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

External links

• Lendering, Jona (2006) [c. 1900—1600 BCE]. "Sumerian King List". Livius.org. Netherlands: Livius Onderwijs (published 1939–1973). Retrieved 2024-01-25.

Further reading

Geography

• Kessler, Peter (2008-04-16) [2008]. "Ancient Mesopotamia". The History Files. Kessler Associates (published 1982–2021). Retrieved 2024-01-25.

Language

• Black, Jeremy Allen; Baines, John Robert; Dahl, Jacob L.; Van De Mieroop, Marc (2024) [1997]. Cunningham, Graham; Ebeling, Jarle; Flückiger-Hawker, Esther; Robson, Eleanor; Taylor, Jon; Zólyomi, Gábor (eds.). "ETCSL: The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature". Faculty of Oriental Studies (revised ed.). United Kingdom (published 1997–2024). Retrieved 2024-01-25. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL), a project of the University of Oxford, comprises a selection of nearly 400 literary compositions recorded on sources which come from ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and date to the late third and early second millennia BCE.
• Renn, Jürgen; Dahl, Jacob L.; Lafont, Bertrand; Pagé-Perron, Émilie (2024) [1998]. "CDLI: Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative" (published 1998–2024). Retrieved 2024-01-25. Images presented online by the research project Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI) are for the non-commercial use of students, scholars, and the public. Support for the project has been generously provided by the Mellon Foundation, the National Science Foundation (NSF), the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), the Institute of Museum and Library Services (ILMS), and by the Max Planck Society (MPS), Oxford and University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA); network services are from UCLA's Center for Digital Humanities.
• Sjöberg, Åke Waldemar; Leichty, Erle; Tinney, Steve (2024) [2003]. "PSD: The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary" (published 2003–2024). Retrieved 2024-01-25. The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary Project (PSD) is carried out in the Babylonian Section of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology. It is funded by the NEH and private contributions. [They] work with several other projects in the development of tools and corpora. [Two] of these have useful websites: the CDLI and the ETCSL.