| Santali | |
|---|---|
| ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ | |
 The word "Santali" in Ol Chiki script | |
| Native to | India, Bangladesh |
| Ethnicity | Santal |
Native speakers | 7.6 million (2011 census[1])[2] |
| Dialects |
|
| Ol Chiki script, Devanagari, Bengali-Assamese script[3], Roman script, Odia alphabet | |
| Official status | |
Official language in |  India |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-2 | sat |
| ISO 639-3 | Either:sat – Santalimjx – Mahali |
| Glottolog | sant1410 Santalimaha1291 Mahali |
Santali (Ol Chiki: ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ), also known as Santhali, is the most widely-spoken language of the Munda subfamily of the Austroasiatic languages, related to Ho and Mundari, spoken mainly in the Indian states of Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Odisha, Tripura and West Bengal.[4]
Santali is among the major 22 languages of India, written in 13 different script among 720 different dilact spoken in India.[5]
It is one of the official language of India recognized as per the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution.[6] It is spoken by around 7.6 million people in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, making it the third most-spoken Austroasiatic language after Vietnamese and Khmer.[4]
Before the development of Ol Chiki by Guru Gomke in 1925, Santali was written in Roman, Bengali and rarely in Odiya language script. Ol Chiki is a unique script developed by Gomke, sharing none of the syllabic properties of the other Indic scripts.[note 1]
History edit
Santhals.[7]
He also says that Santali language is more advanced than sankrant language.[8]: 57
History edit
According to linguist Paul Sidwell, Munda languages probably arrived on coast of Odisha from Indochina about 4000–3500 years ago after Indo-Aryan migration to Odisha.[9]
Until the nineteenth century, Santali had no written language and all shared knowledge was transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation. European interest in the study of the languages of India led to the first efforts at documenting the Santali language. Bengali, Odia and Roman scripts were first used to write Santali before the 1860s by European anthropologists, folklorists and missionaries including A. R. Campbell, Lars Skrefsrud and Paul Bodding. Their efforts resulted in Santali dictionaries, versions of folk tales, and the study of the morphology, syntax and phonetic structure of the language.
The Ol Chiki script was created for Santali by Mayurbhanj poet Raghunath Murmu in 1925 and first publicized in 1939.[10][11]
Ol Chiki as a Santali script is widely accepted among Santal communities. Presently in West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand, Ol Chiki is the official script for Santali literature & language.[12][13] However, users from Bangladesh use Bengali script instead.
Geographic distribution edit
The highest distribution of Santali speakers are in the Bhagalpur and Munger districts of southeastern Bihar; Hazaribag and Manbhum districts of Jharkhand; Paschim Medinipur, Jhargram, Purulia, Bankura, and Birbhum districts of West Bengal; and in the Balasore and Mayurbhanj districts of Odisha. Santali speakers are also in Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura states.[14][15]
Santali is spoken by over seven million people across India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal.[4] According to 2011 census, India has a total of 7,368,192 Santali speakers.[16][17] State wise distribution is Jharkhand (3.27 million), West Bengal (2.43 million), Odisha (0.86 million), Bihar (0.46 million), Assam (0.21 million), Maharashtra (0.10 million) and a few thousand in each of Chhattisgarh, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura.[18]
Official status edit
Santali is one of India's 22nd scheduled languages.[6] It is also recognized as the second state language of the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal.[19][20]
In upper house in 18th July 2018, Venkaiah Naidu announced that all member of parliament are allowed to speak in their language those having recognised in 22 official Indian language. He said as follows:
.......Hon. Members, I have an announcement to make. You are all aware that under Article 120 of the Constitution, the Chairman is empowered to allow Members to speak in any of the 22 languages listed in Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. It has been my ardent desire, ever since my taking over as Chairman, Rajya Sabha, to facilitate Members speak in their mother tongue. Till now, we had arrangements for simultaneous interpretation in 17 languages only.
I am happy to inform you that the Rajya Sabha Secretariat has now made arrangements for simultaneous Interpretation of the proceedings of the House in the remaining five languages also, namely, Dogri, Kashmiri, Konkani, Santhali and Sindhi. With this, Members can speak in all the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule........[5]
Dialects edit
Dialects of Santali include Kamari-Santali, Karmali (Khole), Lohari-Santali, Mahali, Manjhi, Paharia.[4][21][22]
Phonology edit
Consonants edit
Santali[23] has 21 consonants, not counting the 10 aspirated stops which occur primarily, but not exclusively, in Indo-Aryan loanwords and are given in parentheses in the table below.[24]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | (ɳ)* | ɲ | ŋ | ||
| Stop | voiceless | p (pʰ) | t (tʰ) | ʈ (ʈʰ) | c (cʰ) | k | |
| voiced | b (bʱ) | d (dʱ) | ɖ (ɖʱ) | ɟ (ɟʱ) | ɡ (ɡʱ) | ||
| Fricative | s | h | |||||
| Trill | r | ||||||
| Flap | ɽ | ||||||
| Lateral | l | ||||||
| Glide | w | j | |||||
- *ɳ only appears as an allophone of /n/ before /ɖ/.
In native words, the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops is neutralised in word-final position. A typical Munda feature is that word-final stops are "checked", i. e. glottalised and unreleased.
Vowels edit
Santali has eight non-nasal and six nasal vowels.
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i ĩ | u ũ | |
| Mid-high | e | ə ə̃ | o |
| Mid-low | ɛ ɛ̃ | ɔ ɔ̃ | |
| Low | a ã |
There are numerous diphthongs.
Morphology edit
Santali, like all Munda languages, is a suffixing agglutinating language.
Nouns edit
Number edit
Three numbers are distinguished: singular, dual and plural.
| Singular | seta. | 'dog' |
|---|---|---|
| Dual | seta-bariya, setakin | 'two dogs' |
| Plural | seta-ko | 'dogs' |
Case edit
The case suffix follows the number suffix. The following cases are distinguished:
| Case | Marker | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -Ø | Subject and object |
| Genitive | -rɛn (animate) -ak', -rɛak' (inanimate) |
Possessor |
| Comitative | -ʈhɛn/-ʈhɛc' | goal, place |
| Instrumental-Locative | -tɛ | Instrument, cause, motion |
| Sociative | -são | Association |
| Allative | -sɛn/-sɛc' | Direction |
| Ablative | -khɔn/-khɔc' | Source, origin |
| Locative | -rɛ | Spatio-temporal location |
Possession edit
Santali has possessive suffixes which are only used with kinship terms: 1st person -ɲ, 2nd person -m, 3rd person -t. The suffixes do not distinguish possessor number.
Pronouns edit
The personal pronouns in Santali distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.
| Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First person | Exclusive | iń | ɘliɲ | alɛ |
| Inclusive | alaṅ | abo | ||
| Second person | am | aben | apɛ | |
| Third person | Anaphoric | ac' | ɘkin | ako |
| Demonstrative | uni | unkin | oṅko | |
The interrogative pronouns have different forms for animate ('who?') and inanimate ('what?'), and referential ('which?') vs. non-referential.
| Animate | Inanimate | |
|---|---|---|
| Referential | ɔkɔe | oka |
| Non-referential | cele | cet' |
The indefinite pronouns are:
| Animate | Inanimate | |
|---|---|---|
| 'any' | jãheã | jãhã |
| 'some' | adɔm | adɔmak |
| 'another' | ɛʈak'ic' | ɛʈak'ak' |
The demonstratives distinguish three degrees of deixis (proximate, distal, remote) and simple ('this', 'that', etc.) and particular ('just this', 'just that') forms.
| Simple | Animate | Inanimate |
|---|---|---|
| Proximate | nui | noa |
| Distal | uni | ona |
| Remote | həni | hana |
| Particular | Animate | Inanimate |
|---|---|---|
| Proximate | nii | niə |
| Distal | ini | inə |
| Remote | enko | inəko |
Numbers
| Number | Word |
|---|---|
| 1 | ᱢᱤᱫ |
| 2 | ᱵᱟᱨ |
| 3 | ᱯᱮ |
| 4 | ᱯᱳᱱ |
| 5 | ᱢᱚᱬᱮᱸ |
| 6 | ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ |
| 7 | ᱮᱭᱟᱭ |
| 8 | ᱤᱨᱟ.ᱞ |
| 9 | ᱟᱨᱮ |
| 10 | ᱜᱮᱞ |
| 11 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱢᱤᱫ |
| 12 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱵᱟᱨ |
| 13 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱯᱮ |
| 14 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱯᱳᱱ |
| 15 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱢᱚᱬᱮᱸ |
| 16 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ |
| 17 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱮᱭᱟᱭ |
| 18 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱤᱨᱟ.ᱞ |
| 19 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱟᱨᱮ |
| 20 | ᱵᱟᱨ ᱜᱮᱞ |
| 50 | ᱢᱚᱬᱮᱸ ᱜᱮᱞ |
| 100 | ᱢᱤᱫ ᱥᱟᱮ |
| 1000 | ᱢᱤᱫ ᱦᱟᱡᱟᱨ |
| 10,000 | ᱜᱮᱞ ᱦᱟᱡᱟᱨ |
Numerals edit
The basic cardinal numbers (transcribed into Latin script IPA)[25] are:
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 20 | 100 |
| ᱢᱤᱫ mit' | ᱵᱟᱨ bar | ᱯᱮ pɛ | ᱯᱩᱱ pon | ᱢᱚᱬᱮ mɔ̃ɳɛ̃ | ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ turui | ᱮᱭᱟᱭ eae | ᱤᱨᱟᱹᱞ irəl | ᱟᱨᱮ arɛ | ᱜᱮᱞ gɛl | ᱤᱥᱤ isi | ᱥᱟᱭ sae |
The numerals are used with numeral classifiers. Distributive numerals are formed by reduplicating the first consonant and vowel, e.g. babar 'two each'.
Verbs edit
Verbs in Santali inflect for tense, aspect and mood, voice and the person and number of the subject.
Subject markers edit
| Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First person | Exclusive | -ɲ(iɲ) | -liɲ | -lɛ |
| Inclusive | -laŋ | -bon | ||
| Second person | -m | -ben | -pɛ | |
| Third person | -e | -kin | -ko | |
Object markers edit
Transitive verbs with pronominal objects take infixed object markers.
| Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First person | Exclusive | -iɲ- | -liɲ- | -lɛ- |
| Inclusive | -laŋ- | -bon- | ||
| Second person | -me- | -ben- | -pɛ- | |
| Third person | -e- | -kin- | -ko- | |
Syntax edit
Santali is an SOV language, though topics can be fronted.
Influence on other languages edit
Santali, belonging to the Austroasiatic family, has retained its distinct identity and co-existed with languages belonging to the Indo-Aryan family, in Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand and other states. This affiliation is generally accepted, but there are many cross-questions and puzzles.[clarification needed]
Borrowing between Santali and other Indian languages has not yet been studied fully. In modern Indian languages like Western Hindi the steps of evolution from Midland Prakrit Sauraseni could be traced clearly. In the case of Bengali such steps of evolution are not always clear and distinct, and one has to look at other influences that moulded Bengali's essential characteristics.[citation needed]
A notable work in this field was initiated by linguist Byomkes Chakrabarti in the 1960s. Chakrabarti investigated the complex process of assimilation of Austroasiatic family, particularly Santali elements, into Bengali. He showed the overwhelming influence of Bengali on Santali. His formulations are based on the detailed study of two-way influences on all aspects of both languages and tried to bring out the unique features of the languages. More research is awaited in this area.[citation needed]
Notable linguist Khudiram Das authored the 'Santali Bangla Samasabda Abhidhan' (সাঁওতালি বাংলা সমশব্দ অভিধান), a book focusing on the influence of the Santali language on Bengali and providing a basis for further research on this subject. 'Bangla Santali Bhasha Samparka (বাংলা সাঁওতালী ভাষা-সম্পর্ক) is a collection of essays in E-book format authored by him and dedicated to linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji on the relationship between the Bengali and Santali languages.
Rising significance of Santali edit
Santali was honoured in December 2013 when the University Grants Commission of India decided to introduce the language in the National Eligibility Test to allow lecturers to use the language in colleges and universities.[26]
See also edit
References edit
- ^ "Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues – 2011". www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2018-07-07.
- ^ Santali at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)
Mahali at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)
- ^ http://www.ethnologue.com/21/language/sat/
- ^ a b c d Santhali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Mahali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) - ^ a b R.K.Das, Dr. "Multilingualism In Parliament Of India: Need Of The Hour". BW Businessworld. Retrieved 2019-12-29.
- ^ a b "Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages". censusindia.gov.in. Census of India. 20 May 2013.
- ^ Patnaik, N. (2002). Folklore of Tribal Communities: Oral Literature of the Santals, Kharias, Oraons and the Mundas of Orissa. Gyan Books. ISBN 978-81-212-0776-8.
- ^ Pankaj, Ashwini Kumar (2017-06-01). ADIVASIDOM : Selected writings & speeches of Jaipal Singh Munda. Pyara Kerketta Foundation. p. 57. ISBN 978-93-81056-70-7.
- ^ Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic Studies: state of the art in 2018. Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, May 22, 2018.
- ^ Hembram, Phatik Chandra (2002). Santhali, a Natural Language. U. Hembram. p. 165.
- ^ Kundu, Manmatha (1994). Tribal Education, New Perspectives. Gyan Publishing House. p. 37. ISBN 9788121204477.
- ^ "Ol Chiki (Ol Cemet', Ol, Santali)". Scriptsource.org. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
- ^ "Santali Localization". Andovar.com. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
- ^ https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sat
- ^ "Santhali becomes India's first tribal language to get own Wikipedia edition". Hindustan Times. 2018-08-09. Retrieved 2019-02-22.
- ^ "SCHEDULED LANGUAGES IN DESCENDING ORDER OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH - 2011" (PDF). census.gov.in. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "ABSTRACT OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH OF LANGUAGES AND MOTHER TONGUES - 2011" (PDF). census.gov.in. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "PART-A: DISTRIBUTION OF THE 22 SCHEDULED LANGUAGES-INDIA/STATES/UNION TERRITORIES - 2011 CENSUS" (PDF). census.gov.in. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "Second language". India Today. 22 October 2011. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
- ^ Roy, Anirban (27 May 2011). "West Bengal to have six more languages for official use". India Today. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
- ^ "Glottolog 3.2 – Santali". glottolog.org.
- ^ "Santali: Paharia language". Global recordings network. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
- ^ Skrefsrud, Lars Olsen (1873). A Grammar of the Santhal Language. Printed at the Medical Hall Press, Benares, for the Calcutta School Book and Vernacular Literature Society.
- ^ Anderson, Gregory D.S. (2007). The Munda verb: typological perspectives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
- ^ "Santali". The Department of Linguistics, Max Planck Institute (Leipzig, Germany). 2001. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
- ^ Syllabus for UGC NET Santali, Dec 2013
Further reading edit
- Byomkes Chakrabarti (1992). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 81-7074-128-9
- Ghosh, A. (2008). Santali. In: Anderson, G. The Munda Languages. London: Routledge.
- Hansda, Kali Charan (2015). Fundamental of Santhal Language. Sambalpur.
- Hembram, P. C. (2002). Santali, a natural language. New Delhi: U. Hembram.
- Newberry, J. (2000). North Munda dialects: Mundari, Santali, Bhumia. Victoria, B.C.: J. Newberry. ISBN 0-921599-68-4
- Mitra, P. C. (1988). Santali, the base of world languages. Calcutta: Firma KLM.
- Зограф Г. А. (1960/1990). Языки Южной Азии. М.: Наука (1-е изд., 1960).
- Лекомцев, Ю. K. (1968). Некоторые характерные черты сантальского предложения // Языки Индии, Пакистана, Непала и Цейлона: материалы научной конференции. М: Наука, 311—321.
- Grierson, George A. (1906). Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. IV, Mundā and Dravidian languages. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India.
- Maspero, Henri. (1952). Les langues mounda. Meillet A., Cohen M. (dir.), Les langues du monde, P.: CNRS.
- Neukom, Lukas. (2001). Santali. München: LINCOM Europa.
- Pinnow, Heinz-Jürgen. (1966). A comparative study of the verb in the Munda languages. Zide, Norman H. (ed.) Studies in comparative Austroasiatic linguistics. London—The Hague—Paris: Mouton, 96–193.
- Sakuntala De. (2011). Santali : a linguistic study. Memoir (Anthropological Survey of India). Kolkata: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India.
- Vermeer, Hans J. (1969). Untersuchungen zum Bau zentral-süd-asiatischer Sprachen (ein Beitrag zur Sprachbundfrage). Heidelberg: J. Groos.
Dictionaries edit
- Bodding, Paul O. (1929). A Santal dictionary. Oslo: J. Dybwad.
- A. R. Campbell (1899). A Santali-English dictionary. Santal Mission Press.
- English-Santali/Santali-English dictionaries
- Macphail, R. M. (1964). An Introduction to Santali, Parts I & II. Benagaria: The Santali Literature Board, Santali Christian Council.
- Minegishi, M., & Murmu, G. (2001). Santali basic lexicon with grammatical notes. Tōkyō: Institute for the Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. ISBN 4-87297-791-2
Grammars and primers edit
- Bodding, Paul O. 1929/1952. A Santal Grammar for the Beginners, Benagaria: Santal Mission of the Northern Churches (1st edition, 1929).
- Cole, F. T. (1896). Santạli primer. Manbhum: Santal Mission Press.
- Macphail, R. M. (1953) An Introduction to Santali. Firma KLM Private Ltd.
- Muscat, George. (1989) Santali: A New Approach. Sahibganj, Bihar : Santali Book Depot.
- Skrefsrud, Lars Olsen (1873). A Grammar of the Santhal Language. Benares: Medical Hall Press.
- Saren, Jagneswar "Ranakap Santali Ronor" (Progressive Santali Grammar), 1st edition, 2012.
Literature edit
- Pandit Raghunath Murmu (1925) ronor : Mayurbhanj, Odisha Publisher ASECA, Mayurbhanj
- Bodding, Paul O., (ed.) (1923—1929) Santali Folk Tales. Oslo: Institutet for sammenlingenden kulturforskning, Publikationen. Vol. I—III.
- Campbell, A. (1891). Santal folk tales. Pokhuria, India: Santal Mission Press.
- Murmu, G., & Das, A. K. (1998). Bibliography, Santali literature. Calcutta: Biswajnan. ISBN 81-7525-080-1
- Santali Genesis Translation.
- The Dishom Beura, India's First Santali Daily News Paper. Publisher, Managobinda Beshra, National Correspondent: Mr. Somenath Patnaik
External links edit
References edit
Notes edit
- ^ Ex. Devnagri, Punjabi