User:Nguyen.M.T/sandbox

/sympathy

Sympathy

Sympathy is an extension of empathic concern, or the perception, understanding, and reaction to the distress or need of another human being. This empathic concern is driven by a switch in perspective from one's own to another group or individual who is in need. Empathy and sympathy are often used interchangeably, but the two terms have distinct origins and meanings. In order to understand sympathy, it is important to note that empathy refers to the understanding and sharing of a specific emotional state with another person. Sympathy, however, does not require the sharing of the same emotional state. Instead, sympathy is a concern for the well-being of another. Although sympathy may begin with empathizing with the same emotion another person is feeling, sympathy can be extended to other emotional states.

This definition accords with the traditional definition of the term, which entered English nearly three centuries ago via Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature. Hume's work set forth the logic of sympathy that entered the social sciences where sympathy is conceived as "an emotional response stemming from another's emotional state or condition that is not identical to the others emotion, but consists of feelings of sorrow or concern for another welfare."

Explanations: Why is sympathy experienced?

In order to experience sympathy, an individual must first dedicate attention to a person or group. For example, a group of researchers found that distracting participants severely limited their ability to produce strong affective responses. Therefore attention is a cognitive facilitator for the experience of sympathy. In addition to differences in attention, the state of need of an individual or group is also considered. Varying states of need require unique human reactions, often ranging from attention to sympathy. The conditions under which sympathy is selected as an appropriate response are organized more broadly into individual differences and situational differences.

Several theorists support the motivational influence of conceptions of deservingness, interdependence, and vulnerability on the experience of sympathy. Research has demonstrated that a person who seems ‘deserving’ of aid is more likely to be helped. Social psychologists have posited that this judgment of character helps to maintain social order, making sure that those who are in need receive the appropriate care. The same psychologists believe that a notion of interdependence fuels sympathetic behavior; this action is seen as self-satisfying because helping someone who is connected to you through some way (family, social capital) will often result in a personal reward (social, monetary, etc.). Lastly, a large contingent of researchers has demonstrated that sympathy operates based on the principle of the powerful helping the vulnerable. Therefore, those who are perceived as vulnerable (young, elderly, sick) become the target of sympathy. This desire to help the vulnerable stems from a paternalistic nature of humans seeking to protect and aid their children in survival.

Research has also suggested that mood state, previous experiences, social connections, novelty, salience, and spacial proximity are each determinants of sympathy. Specifically, researchers have demonstrated that individuals experiencing positive mood states and who have experienced similar situations are more likely to experience sympathy. In-group status, or a person belonging to a person’s social group, is also key to the experience of sympathy. (ADD) New and emotionally-provoking situations also represent an explanation for empathic emotions, such as sympathy.

Communication of Sympathy

Verbal communication is the obvious medium by which individuals are able to communicating feelings of sympathy. People can perform sympathy by addressing the emotions being felt by themselves and others involved and by acknowledging the current environmental conditions for why sympathy would be the appropriate reaction. Nonverbal communication presents a fascinating study of speech intonation, facial expression, bodily motions and person-to-person physical contacts. Some other forms include spacing between people, posture and appearance. These forms of expression can convey messages related to emotion as well as opinions, physical states (fatigue), and understanding. Emotional expression is especially linked to the production of emotion-specific facial expressions. These expressions are the same from culture to culture and are often reproduced by observers, which facilitates the observers’ own understanding of the emotion and/or situation.

Nonverbal communication cues are often subconscious and difficult to control. In addition, deliberate regulation of emotion and nonverbal expression is often imperfect. Nonverbal gestures and facial expressions are also generally better understood by people observing the gestures, expressions, etc, and not by the person experiencing them first hand.

Touch has the special ability of conveying affective information upon connection. However, this sensation must be paired with the understanding of the specific context of a given situation. Therefore, one might suggest that the touch of the hand on the shoulder during a funeral might be the fastest method of conveying sympathy. One group of researchers found that patting a person on their back, arms, or head for 5-6 seconds could effectively convey feelings of sympathy between people. These researchers also noted that there were differences found in effectiveness of using touch to convey affect between men and women, which corresponds to the larger body of literature. Women seem to more effectively communicate emotion, specifically through touch.

As mentioned, these are all methods by which people can convey thoughts and emotions without the use of words, not solely sympathy. Sympathy is often conveyed using these tools through expressing emotion (not necessarily the same emotion) that conveys a sense of understanding and concern for the individual or group’s well being.

Sympathy and Human Behavior

Although sympathy is a well-known term, the implications of sympathy found in the study of human behavior are often less clear. Decision-making, an integral part of human behavior, involves the weighing costs with potential outcomes. Research on decision-making has been divided into two mechanisms, often labeled “System 1” and “System 2.” These two systems, representing the gut and the head respectively, influence decisions based on context and the individual characteristics of actors. Sympathy is an agent working in System 1, a system that uses affective cues to dictate decisions whereas System 2 is based in logic and reason. Sympathy acts in a way that provides a means of understanding another person's experience or situation, good or bad, with a focus on their individual well-being. Research has suggested that emotion-based decision-making is often more accessible, as most of us have experienced the spectrum of human emotions, and therefore encourages individuals to help others who they perceive to be in need.

Sympathy is a major determinant of charitable behavior. Researchers have recently demonstrated that the choice to donate and the subsequent decision of how much to give elicit disparate affective emotions. While researchers found that mood management influenced the initial decision to donate because of selfish concerns (avoid regret or feel better), they found that affective processing determined how much to donate, based on feelings of deservingness. Several researchers have sought to capitalize on human sympathy in donation behavior; these researchers have found effective ways of increasing emotional salience, such as presenting individual cases and using less information and numerical information.

In addition to its influence on decision-making, sympathy also plays a role in maintaining social order. Social psychologists have posited that this judgment of character helps to maintain social order, making sure that those who are in need receive the appropriate care. The same psychologists believe that a notion of interdependence fuels sympathetic behavior; this action is seen as self-satisfying because helping someone who is connected to you through some way (family, social capital) will often result in a personal reward (social, monetary, etc.). Regardless of selflessness or selfishness, sympathy facilitates the give and take that is necessary for maintaining a functional society.

Sympathy in Child Development

Sympathy is a stepping stone in both social and moral development. Sympathy generally arises between 2-3 years old, although some instances of empathic emotion can be seen as early as 18 months. The development of Theory of Mind, or the ability to view the world from different perspectives, is strongly associated with the development of sympathy and other complex emotions. These emotions are complex because they involve more than just one's own emotional states; complex emotions involve the interplay of multiple people's varying and fluctuating thoughts and emotions within given contexts. The ability to experience vicarious emotion is integral for empathic concern. Moral development is similarly tied to the understanding of outside perspectives and emotions. One group of researchers has divided moral reasoning into five categories beginning with a hedonistic self-orientation and ending with an internalized sense of needs of others, including empathic emotions.

It is important to acknowledge that the use or acceptance of sympathy can be both altruistic and self-satisfying in social situations. Several researchers posit that parenting styles (specifically level of affection) can influence the development of sympathy. Prosocial and moral development extends into adolescence and early adulthood as humans learn to better assess and interpret the emotions of others. This is representative of an increased efficiency of and ability to engage in internal moral reasoning.

Evolutionary Origins

The evolution of sympathy is tied directly into the development of social intelligence. With the expansion of the neocortex, our primate ancestors indicated the natural selection of social intelligence. Social intelligence references a broad range of behaviors, and their associated cognitive skills, such as pair bonding, the creation of social hierarchies, and alliance formation. Researchers theorize that empathic emotions, or those relating to the emotions of others, arose due to reciprocal altruism, mother-child bonding, and the need to accurately estimate the future actions of conspecifics. In other words, empathic emotions were driven by the desire to create relationships that were mutually beneficial and to better understand the emotions of others that could avert danger or stimulate positive outcomes. As mentioned earlier, social order is improved when people are able to provide aid to others when it is a detriment to oneself (altruistic behavior).

The conditions necessary to develop empathic concerns, and later sympathy, begin with the creation of a small group of socially dependent individuals. Second, the individuals in this community must have a relatively long lifespan in order to encounter several opportunities to react with sympathy. Parental care relationships, alliances during conflicts, and the creation of social hierarchies are also associated with the onset of sympathy in human interactions. One group of researchers analyzed the moments in which sympathetic behavior originally came about, including dangerous situations (predator sighting) and providing aid for the sick and/or wounded. (Trivers) The evolution of sympathy as a social catalyst can be seen in both primate species and in human development.

Neuroscience Perspectives

Social and emotional stimuli, particularly those related to the well-being of another person, are being more directly studied with advent of technology that can track brain activity (such as Electroencephalograms and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging). Amygdala and insula activation occur when a person experiences emotions, such as fear and disgust respectively. Primary motor regions are also activated during sympathy. This could be caused by the common reaction that people display of reflecting facial expressions, which seems to help people better understand the other person's emotion. In addition, researchers have also suggested that the neural mechanisms that are activated when personally experiencing emotions are also activated when viewing another person experiencing the same emotions (mirror neurons). Pain seems to specifically activate a region known as the cingulate cortex, in addition to activation that is mentioned ealier. The temporal parietal junction, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum are also thought to play a role in the production of emotion.

Generally, empathic emotions (including sympathy), require the activation of top-down and bottom-up activity. From the sensory level, people must sense and experience the emotional cues of another. At the same time, indicative of the dual-process theory, top-down responses must be enacted to make sense of the emotional inputs streaming in and apply motive and environmental influence analyses to better understand the situation. Top-down processes often include attention to emotion and emotion regulation.