User:Jtlee0/sandbox

"Selecting possible articles"

Sector: Capacity Building Climate Justice or Climate resilience Advocacy

Area: Environmental issues in the Philippines Human rights in the Philippines

I plan to do the Environmental Issues in the Philippines article for my Area article. I believe that much can be added to it. Specifically I want to add a section about climate change and sea level rise and how those issues are affecting people in the Philippines. In addition, I want to improve the section on government policy and include more information about conservation and sustainability efforts in the Philippines. Other work can include expanding on other sections like air and water pollution or creating new sections based on all the environmental issues listed in the lead section but not in the main body.

I am having trouble deciding on a sector article, I hope to talk to Professor Talwalker about it sometimes this week. I am between the Climate Justice article and the Capacity Building article. I had been thinking about the climate justice article because it is the sector I am interested in and would be happy editing, but I've realized that my PE organization's work falls more accurately under capacity building. Capacity building is a more developed article (C-class) and at this point in time I don't really know what I could add to it. For the climate justice article, I would add to the case studies to show more diverse and expansive examples. I would contribute facts and statistics to reasons and causes to more accurately depict the impact climate change has on marginalized groups. It has a controversial interpretations section that I feel like I could get into and expand on.

Evaluating Two Articles

Environmental Issues in the Philippines: This article is within the scope of the Tambayan Philippines WikiProject. The article has received a stub class score as well as a high importance score. That being said, the article is quite brief but its current content is all relevant to the article topic. However, I think that it is lacking a lot of development and content that is crucial to the topic. All the sections are very short and could be expanded on heavily. There are new sections that needs to be added to address more of the different types of environmental issues beyond the scope of pollution and deforestation. For example, the article lists climate change as an issue but does not talk about it any further than that, and has no mention of sea level rise. Despite this lack of including important topics, the article's writing is not biased toward any particular position. I think one viewpoint that is lacking or rather absent is one of environmental justice and how the environmental issues are harming the people of the Philippines. I believe that the information on the article is relevant and important, but definitely should be updated with more current facts. The majority of the facts were from around 2007 or earlier. Most of the citation links were functional and the two citations I checked all supported the claims made in the article. The article's talk page is essentially blank. There is one entry from a user in 2016 who modified two external links on the page and notified others to review their changes. There is definitely a lot of work that can be done on this page.

Climate Justice: This article is within the scope of four different WikiProjects: Environment, Philosophy, Politics, and Globalization. The article has been rated as start class by all 4 wikiprojects and has received both low and medium importance ratings. I think that this article is off to a great start and has a lot of great content. Of course, there are definitely sections and parts that can be expanded on and made more comprehensive. For the case study section, many more case studies could be added. For the most part, the article is decent about framing the issue in a global context, but could benefit from more non US examples and lens. The content is fairly up to date as it has examples and facts from 2017 and even 2018. The article does a good job in framing the debate between different sides of political groups. The article's writing is not biased and contains relevant information to the topic. All the links and citations seem to be in order. The talk page does not have much activity, one person fixed a link, one person added some thought commentary on how the article should be improved but that is mostly it. This page is more complete than the first article and knowing where to make contributions is not as blatantly obvious but I know that there is a lot of work that can be done to improve the article. I envision looking into more case studies exhibiting the effects of climate injustice as well as examples of legal climate resistance globally.

Capacity building:

This article falls under three different Wikiprojects of Organizations, Sociology, and Sanitation, and is rated C-class and low to mid importance by all three projects. The talk pages is very inactive with only 2-3 actual comments, however there are one or two good suggestions on it. In particular, the comment about capacity building being very international and developing country focused. Overall the article seemed relatively straightforward. It has a lot of good content but seems very repetitive and disorganized at the same time. The article’s structure and layout definitely can use some work with reorganizing. There was one point where it seemed like there was analysis or conclusions that weren’t cited which I want to look into. The article gave me a better understanding of the term capacity building and the different venues it can take place in. I think it’ll be interesting to learn about the different ways IBON International builds capacity at different levels. For example, the work they do on the ground with local communities versus the policy work and lobbying they do. The article seems neutral, but like mentioned earlier had a focus on international development which can be limiting. A majority of the links worked. I’m interested in looking into capacity development as it relates to different sectors. I may add a capacity building and climate change section.

Bibliography:

Area:

1. "Double exposure, infrastructure planning, and urban climate resilience in coastal megacities: A case study of Manila"
   1. This source will provide valuable information and insight into the current state and impact climate change has on the Philippines and how resilience and activism are taking place.
2. "Gendered vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers to climate change in conflict-prone areas: A case study from Mindanao, Philippines"
   1. Intersectional look at climate change impacts and affects on rural areas and farmers in the Philippines. Provide great insight for adding to different environmental issues.
3. "Climate Change, Agricultural Production and Civil Conflict: Evidence from the Philippines"
   1. Will explore the effects of climate change on the agricultural sector and look into civil conflicts that have emerged as a result of climate change. Great addition to environmental issues because it talks about societal issues that have emerged from a degraded environment.
4. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JpZRBMuKjBUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=environmental+issues+in+the+philippines&ots=fEpLZROTEj&sig=km5UUb-SO0s9fK2YRlI5XGHuRKA#v=onepage&q=philippines&f=false
5. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-conservation/article/environmental-degradation-and-some-economic-consequences-in-the-philippines/57329BD3EA5FB8F3E8396FE2B2BB5716
6. https://www.popline.org/node/325658
7. http://125.235.8.196:8080/dspace/bitstream/CEID_123456789/4797/1/52_TheEnvironmentalEffects-AdjustmentPrograms-ThePhilippinesCase(06_23-25)93tr.pdf

Sector:

1. https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2414653/Vestb%C3%B8,%20Linn.pdf?sequence=1
2. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.476.7009&rep=rep1&type=pdf
3. https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/2292/5905/02whole.pdf?sequence
4. http://www.lis.zou.ac.zw:8080/dspace/bitstream/0/159/1/PANGE%20FILIPE.pdf
5. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Margaret_Harris3/publication/230557482_Building_the_Capacity_of_the_Voluntary_Nonprofit_Sector_Challenges_of_Theory_and_Practice/links/552bce160cf2e089a3aa7d7d/Building-the-Capacity-of-the-Voluntary-Nonprofit-Sector-Challenges-of-Theory-and-Practice.pdf
6. https://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/7389/02_whole.pdf
7. http://dl4a.org/uploads/pdf/AI-PhD-DISSERTATION1.pdf

1. "Alleviating barriers to urban climate change adaptation through international cooperation"
   1. This source gives insight specific to the effect of climate change on urban cities and people. It has information about the different types of barriers challenging climate justice and talks about how those barriers can be alleviated through international cooperation. I can use this to expand the section about different responses to climate change.
2. "Chapter 8: Bending the Curve and Closing the Gap: Climate Justice and Public Health"
   1. This source talks about ways to enact climate justice by building carbon neutral societies and discusses innovations in technology, policy, attitudinal, and behavioral change. I can use this to add information to the disparities between low income and rich people in regards to climate change and that is why climate justice is needed.
3. "Facilitating Climate Justice through Community-Based Adaptation in the Health Sector"
   1. This source explores action being taken for climate justice and may provide insight on how that looks like when it is community based. Furthermore, interested in the intersection of climate justice and health sector practices.I'm excited to use this source to talk about community based climate resilience.

Summarizing and Synthesizing

"Climate Change" header section

Sea level rise" subheader

"climate driven conflict" subheader

Intersectional Environmental Justice

Environmental Issues in the Philippines

Everything below this is what I have written for the Environmental Issues in the Philippines wiki Article. I created a new section called Climate Change and am in the process of developing it.

Refer to the parenthetical citations using this:

(A): https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/2017_Climate%20Change%20Risk%20Profile_Philippines.pdf

(B): http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/473371468332663224/pdf/788090WP0P13010nge0Executive0Report.pdf

(C): http://weltrisikobericht.de/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/WorldRiskReport2016.pdf

(D): http://iris.wpro.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665.1/12401/9789290617372_eng.pdf?ua=1

(E): https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=A-sXDFLcMR8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA4&dq=Yusuf,+A.+A.,+%26+Francisco,+H.+(2010).+Hotspots!:+Mapping+climate+change+vulnerability+in+Southeast+Asia.+Singapore:+Economy+and+Environment&ots=rrw6q4lQYz&sig=feO2eD6Mb0R4vdkpJafRwN-7RMk#v=onepage&q&f=false

(F): http://ndrrmc.gov.ph/attachments/article/1329/FINAL_REPORT_re_Effects_of_Typhoon_YOLANDA_%28HAIYAN%29_06-09NOV2013.pdf

(G): http://www.precisrcm.com/DFID_Philippines_Reporting/Philippines_Sea_Level_Report_Oct_2016.pdf

Climate Change

One of the most pressing environmental issues impacting the Philippines is climate change. As an island country located in the Southeast Asia Pacific region, the Philippines is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Some of these impacts include increased frequency and severity of natural disasters, sea level rise, extreme rainfall, global warming, resource shortages, and environmental degradation. All of these impacts together have greatly affected the Philippines’ agriculture, energy, water, infrastructure, human health, and coastal ecosystems and they are projected to continue having devastating damages to the economy and society of the Philippines.

Impacts of global warming

Climate History

Due to its geographical location, climate, and topography, the Philippines is ranked third on the World Risk Index for highest disaster risk and exposure to natural disasters. 16 of its provinces, including Manila, Benguet, and Batanes, are included in the top 50 most vulnerable places in Southeast Asia, with Manila being ranked 7th. Four cities in the Philippines, Manila, San Jose, Roxas, and Cotaboato, are included in the top 10 cities most vulnerable to sea level rise in the East Asia and Pacific region. The country is consistently at risk from severe natural hazards including typhoons, floods, landslides, and drought. It is located within a region that experiences the highest rate of typhoons in the world, averaging 20 typhoons annually, with about 7-9 that actually make landfall. In 2009, the Philippines had the third highest number of casualties from natural disasters with the second most victims.

Climate change has had and will continue to have drastic effects on the climate of the Philippines. From 1951-2010, the Philippines saw its average temperature rise by 0.65 degrees Celsius, with fewer recorded cold nights and more hot days. Since the 1970s, the number of typhoons during the El Niño season has increased. The Philippines has not only seen 0.15 meters of sea level rise since 1940, but also seen 0.6 to 1 degree Celsius increase in sea surface temperatures since 1910, and 0.09 degree c increase in ocean temperatures since 1950. During the time period from 1990 to 2006, the Philippines experienced a number of record-breaking weather events, including the strongest typhoon (wind speeds), the most destructive typhoons (damages), the deadliest storm (causalities), and the typhoon with the highest 24 hour rainfall on record.

Super Typhoon Haiyan

Main Article: Typhoon Haiyan

At 04:40 on November 8th, 2013, Super Typhoon Haiyan, also known locally as “Yolanda”, made landfall in the Philippines in the Guigan municipality. The category 5 typhoon continued to travel west, making landfall in several municipalities, and ultimately devastated enormous stretches of the Philippines islands of Samar, Leyte, Cebu, and the Visaya archipelago. Tied for being the strongest landfalling tropical typhoon on  record, Typhoon Haiyan had wind speeds of over 300 km/h (almost 190 mph) which triggered major storm surges that wreaked havoc on many places in the country. Leaving over 6,300 dead, 28,688 injured, and 1062 missing, Typhoon Haiyan is the deadliest typhoon on record in the Philippines. More than 16 million people were affected by the storm, suffering from the storm surge, flash floods, landslides, and extreme winds and rainfall that took lives, destroyed homes, and devastated many. Typhoon Haiyan crucially damaged over 1.1 million houses across the country and displayed over 4.1 million people. According to the NDRRMC, the storm cost the Philippines about 3.64 billion US dollars.

Future Projections

Future projections for the current trajectory of climate change predict that global warming is likely to exceed 3degrees Celsius, potentially 4degrees, by 2060. Specifically in the Philippines, average temperatures are “virtually certain” to see an increase of 1.8 to 2.2 degrees Celsius. This temperature increase will stratify the local climate and cause the wet and dry seasons to be wetter and drier, respectively. Most areas in the Philippines will see reduced rainfall from March to May, while Luzon and Visayas will see increased heavy rainfall. There will also be an increase in: the number of days that exceed 35degree C; that have less than 2.5 mm of rainfall; and that have more than 300mm of rainfall. Additionally, climate change will continue to increase the intensity of typhoons and tropical storms. Sea levels around the Philippines are projected to rise 0.48 to 0.65 meters by 2100, which exceeds the global average for rates of sea level rise. Combined with sea level rise, this stratification into more extreme seasons and climates increases the frequency and severity of storm surge, floods, landslides, and droughts. These exacerbate risks to agriculture, energy, water, infrastructure, human health, and coastal ecosystems.

Vulnerabilities of different sectors

Agriculture

Agriculture is one of the Philippines’ largest sectors and will continue to be adversely impacted by the effects of climate change. The agriculture sector employs 35% of the working population and generated 13% of the country’s GDP in 2009. The two most important crops, rice and corn, account for 67% of the land under cultivation and stand to see reduced yields from heat and water stress. Rice, wheat, and corn crops are expected to see a 10% decrease in yield for every 1degree C increase over a 30dC average annual temperature. Increases in extreme weather events will have devastating affects on agriculture.  Typhoons (high winds) and heavy rainfall contribute to the destruction of crops, reduced soil fertility, altered agricultural productivity through severe flooding, increased runoff, and soil erosiion. Droughts and reduced rainfall leads to increased pest infestations that damage crops as well as an increased need for irrigation. Rising sea levels increases salinity which leads to a loss of arable land and irrigation water. All of these factors contribute to higher prices of food and an increased demand for imports, which hurts the general economy as well as individual livelihoods. From 2006 to 2013, the Philippines experienced a total of 75 disasters that cost the agricultural sector $3.8 billion in loss and damages. The agricultural sector is expected to see an estimated annual GDP loss of 2.2% by 2100 due to climate impacts on agriculture.

Agricultural production and civil conflict:

In the Philippines, there is a correlation between rainfall and civil conflict, and manifests through agricultural production. The increased rainfall during the wet season in the Philippines is proven to be harmful to agriculture as it leads to flooding and/or water logging. This above average rainfall is associated with “more conflict related incidents and casualties”. The rainfall has a negative effect on rice which is an important crop that a majority of the country depends on as both a food sources and employment. A poor rice crop can lead to large impacts on the wellbeing of poor Filipinx and cause widespread contempt for the government and more support for insurgent groups. Climate change is expected to amplify the seasonal variation of rainfall in the Philippines and exacerbate ongoing civil conflict in the country.

Energy

Climate change could simultaneously reduce the Philippines’ supply of energy and increase its demand for energy. The increased chance of extreme weather events would reduce hydropower production, which accounts for 20% of the country’s energy supply, as well as cause widespread damage to energy infrastructure and services. There will be more power outages on average in addition to an increased demand for power, specifically cooling.

Water

Several factors of climate change are impacting the availability of water in the Philippines. The increasing number of intense droughts are reducing water levels and river flows and thus creating a shortage in water. The floods and landslides caused by extreme rainfall degrade watershed health and water quality by increasing runoff and erosion that increases sedimentation in reservoirs. Many freshwater coastal aquifers have seen saltwater intrusion which reduces the amount of freshwater available for use. About 25% of coastal municipalities in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao are affected by this and the issue is expected to get worse with sea level rise.

Infrastructure

Rising sea levels, heavy rainfall and flooding, and strong typhoons pose an enormous risk to the Philippines’ infrastructure. 45% of Philippines’ urban population lives in informal settlements with already weak infrastructure and are extremely vulnerable to flooding and typhoons. A giant storm would wreak havoc on these informal settlements and cause the deaths and displacement of millions of people who inhabit 25 different coastline cities. These natural disasters will also cause millions of dollars in damages to urban infrastructure like bridges and roads. In 2009, Tropical Storm Ketsana cost the Philippines $33 million to repair damaged roads and bridges.

Human Health

Climate change, heavy rains, and increased temperatures are linked with the increased transmission of vector and waterborne diseases like malaria, dengue, and diarrhea (who). The heavy rains and increased temperatures lead to increased humidity which increases the chance of mosquito breeding and survival. Increased natural disasters not only directly contribute to the loss of human life, but also indirectly through food insecurity and the destruction of health services.

Coastal Ecosystems and Fisheries

Climate change and global warming and the rising amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere has contributed to ocean warming and ocean acidification. The ocean has acted as a carbon sink for earth for millennia and is currently slowing the rate of global warming through the sequestration of carbon. This comes at a cost however as the oceans are becoming more and more acidic as they sequester more carbon dioxide. Ocean acidification has dire consequences as it causes coral bleaching and ultimately leads to the collapse of coral reefs (usaid). Rising sea levels cause increased salinity that can have damaging impacts on the country’s extensive system of mangroves. Both coral reefs and mangroves help to reduce coastal erosion and supports water quality. This erosion from the loss of coral reefs and mangroves increase the chance of coastal flooding and the loss of land. Coral reefs and mangroves also act as important feeding and spawning areas for many fish species that many fisher folk depend on for survival. Over 60% of the coastal population depends on marine resources like coral reefs or mangroves for their contributions to fisheries, tourism, and storm protection.

Capacity building (Copy pasted from original article)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Training course on hygiene promotion in Berlin Capacity building (or capacity development) is the process by which individual and organizations obtain, improve, and retain the skills, knowledge, and resources needed to do their jobs competently or to a greater capacity (larger scale, larger audience, larger impact, etc). Capacity building and capacity development are often used interchangeably; however, some people interpret capacity building as not recognizing people's existing capacity whereas capacity development recognizes existing capacities which require improvement.

Community capacity building is a conceptual approach to social, behavioral change and leads to infrastructure development in case of water and sanitation that It simultaneously focuses on understanding the obstacles that inhibit people, governments, international organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from realizing their development goals and enhancing the abilities that will allow them to achieve measurable and sustainable results.

The term community capacity building emerged in the lexicon of international development during the 1990s. Today, "community capacity building" is included in the programs of most international organizations that work in development, such as the World Bank, the United Nations and non-governmental organizations like Oxfam International. Wide use of the term has resulted in controversy over its true meaning.

Community capacity building often refers to strengthening the skills, competencies and abilities of people and communities in small businesses and local grassroots movements developing societies so they can achieve their goals and potentially overcome the causes of their exclusion and suffering. Organizational capacity building is used by NGOs & Governments to guide their internal development and activities.

Contents

 [[null hide]]

• 1Definitions
• 2History
• 3In developing societies
  • 3.1In governments
    • 3.1.1Isomorphic mimicry
  • 3.2Local
  • 3.3In NGOs
• 4Evaluation
• 5Specification
• 6Opportunity management
• 7Partial list of agencies providing capacity building
  • 7.1European Institutions
  • 7.2United Nations
• 8See also
• 9References
• 10Further reading
• 11External links

Definitions[edit]

Community Capacity Development in Brazil where a local, Portuguese-speaking journalist was consulted in advance of the training, regarding the media landscape in Brazil Many organizations interpret community capacity building in their own ways and focus on it rather than promoting two-way development in developing nations. Fundraising, training centers, exposure visit, office and documentation support, on the job training, learning centers and consultants are all some forms of capacity building. To prevent international aid for development from becoming perpetual dependency, developing nations are adopting strategies provided by the organizations in the form of capacity building.

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) was one of the forerunners in developing an understanding of community capacity building or development. Since the early 70s the UNDP offered guidance for its staff and governments on what was considered "institution building".

The UNISDR defines capacity development in the DRR domain as "the process by which people, organizations and society systematically stimulate and develop their capability over time to achieve social and economic goals, including through improvement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutions – within a wider social and cultural enabling environment."

In 1991, the term evolved to be "community capacity building". The UNDP defines capacity building as a long-term continual process of development that involves all stakeholders; including ministries, local authorities, non-governmental organizations, professionals, community members, academics and more. Capacity building uses a country's human, scientific, technological, organizational, and institutional and resource capabilities. The goal of capacity building is to tackle problems related to policy and methods of development, while considering the potential, limits and needs of the people of the country concerned. The UNDP outlines that capacity building takes place on an individual level, an institutional level and the societal level.

• Individual level – Community capacity-building on an individual level requires the development of conditions that allow individual participants to build and enhance knowledge and skills. It also calls for the establishment of conditions that will allow individuals to engage in the "process of learning and adapting to change".
• Institutional level – Community capacity building on an institutional level should involve aiding institutions in developing countries. It should not involve creating new institutions, rather modernizing existing institutions and supporting them in forming sound policies, organizational structures, and effective methods of management and revenue control.
• Societal level – Community capacity building at the societal level should support the establishment of a more "interactive public administration that learns equally from its actions and from feedback it receives from the population at large." Community capacity building must be used to develop public administrators that are responsive and accountable.

Non Training Level- providing enabling environment to the trained staff to perform at his optimum level.

The World Customs Organization – an intergovernmental organization (IO) that develops standards for governing the movement of people and commodities, defines capacity building as "activities which strengthen the knowledge, abilities, skills and behaviour of individuals and improve institutional structures and processes such that the organization can efficiently meet its mission and goals in a sustainable way." It is, however, important to put into consideration the principles that govern community capacity building.

Oxfam International – a globally recognized NGO, defines community capacity building in terms of its own principals. OXFAM believes that community capacity building is an approach to development based on the fundamental concept that people all have an equal share of the world's resources and they have the right to be "authors of their own development and denial of such right is at the heart of poverty and suffering."

For the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/Development Assistance Committee (OECD/DAC), capacity development is the process whereby people, organisations and society as a whole unleash, strengthen, create, adapt and maintain capacity over time.

For the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, capacity development is the process of strengthening the abilities of individuals, organizations and societies to make effective use of the resources, in order to achieve their own goals on a sustainable basis.

The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) defined capacity development as the activities, approaches, strategies, and methodologies which help organizations, groups and individuals to improve their performance, generate development benefits and achieve their objectives.

The World Bank – Africa Region defines capacity as the proven ability of key actors in a society to achieve socio-economic goals on their own. This is demonstrated through the functional presence of a combination of most of the following factors: viable institutions and respective organizations; commitment and vision of leadership; financial and material resources; skilled human resources.

Organizational capacity building – another form of capacity building that is focused on developing capacity within organizations like NGOs. It refers to the process of enhancing an organization's abilities to perform specific activities. An Organizational capacity building approach is used by NGOs to develop internally so they can better fulfill their defined mission.

Allan Kaplan, a leading NGO scholar argues that to be effective facilitators of capacity building in developing areas, NGOs must participate in organizational capacity building first. Steps to building organizational capacity include:

• Developing a conceptual framework
• Establishing an organizational attitude
• Developing a vision and strategy
• Developing an organizational structure
• Acquiring skills and resources
• Preparing required tools, hand books, manuals, advisories, primers and guidelines etc.

Kaplan argues that NGOs who focus on developing a conceptual framework, an organizational attitude, vision and strategy are more adept at being self-reflective and critical, two qualities that enable more effective capacity building.

Some common elements and learning emerge from the definitions above:

• Capacity development is a process of change, and hence is about managing transformations. People's capacities and institutional capacity and a society's capacity change over time. A focus on what development policies and investments work best to strengthen the abilities, networks, skills and knowledge base cannot be a one-off intervention.
• There can be short-term results. And often in crises and post conflict situations there is a need for such. But even short-term capacity gains, such as increase in monetary incentives or introducing a new information system, must be supported by a sustained resource and political commitment to yield longer term results that truly impact on existing capacities.
• Capacity development is about who and how and where the decisions are made, management takes place, services are delivered and results are monitored and evaluated. It is primarily an endogenous process, and whilst supported and facilitated by the international development community, it cannot be owned or driven from the outside. At the end of the day, it is about capable and transformational states, which enable capable and resilient societies to achieve their own development objectives over time.

History[edit]

The term "community capacity building" has evolved from past terms such as institutional building and organizational development.

In the 1950s and 1960s these terms referred to community development that focused on enhancing the technological and self-help capacities of individuals in rural areas.

In the 1970s, following a series of reports on international development an emphasis was put on building capacity for technical skills in rural areas, and also in the administrative sectors of developing countries. In the 1980s the concept of institutional development expanded even more. Institutional development was viewed as a long-term process of building up a developing country's government, public and private sector institutions, and NGOs.

Though precursors to capacity building existed before, they were not powerful forces in international development like "capacity building" became during the 1990s.

The emergence of capacity building as a leading development concept in the 1990s occurred due to a confluence of factors:

• New philosophies that promoted empowerment and participation, like Paulo Freire's Education for Critical Consciousness (1973), which emphasized that education, could not be handed down from an omniscient teacher to an ignorant student; rather it must be achieved through the process of a dialogue among equals.
• Commissioned reports and research during the 1980s, like the Capacity and Vulnerabilities Analysis (CVA) which posited three assumptions:

development is the process by which vulnerabilities are reduced and capacities increased

no one develops anyone else

relief programs are never neutral in their development impact

• Changes in international development approaches

During the 1980s many low-income states were subject to "structural adjustment packages"—the neoliberal nature of the packages led to increasing disparities of wealth. In response, a series of "social dimension adjustments were enacted". The growing wealth gap coupled with "social dimension adjustments" allowed for an increased significance for NGOs in developing states as they actively participated in social service delivery to the poor.

• Then, in the 1990s a new emphasis was placed on the idea of sustainable development.

Reports like the CVA and ideas like those of Freire from earlier decades emphasized that "no one could develop anyone else" and development had to be participatory. These arguments questioned the effectiveness of "service delivery programs" for achieving sustainable development, thus leading the way for a new emphasis on "capacity building."

In September 2000, the commitment, sealed in the Millennium Declaration in September 2000 in New York, of 190 countries to achieving the Millennium Development Goal by 2015, and the urgent need for countries, particularly developing countries, to effectively and speedily respond to the current global economic recession, climate change and other crises that are plaguing the world and adding to the two billion people already living below the poverty line, has renewed interest and engagement in capacity building.

In developing societies[edit]

In the UNDP's 2008–2013 "strategic plan for development" capacity building is the "organization's core contribution to development". The UNDP promotes a capacity building approach to development in the 166 countries it is active in. It focuses on building capacity on an institutional level and offers a five–step process for systematic capacity building.

The steps are:

1. Conducting Training Need Assessment (TNA)
2. Engage stakeholders on capacity development

   An effective capacity building process must encourage participation by all those involved. If stakeholders are involved and share ownership in the process of development they will feel more responsible for the outcome and sustainability of the development. Engaging stakeholder's who are directly affected by the situation allows for more effective decision-making, it also makes development work more transparent. UNDP and its partners use advocacy and policy advisory to better engage stakeholders.

3. Assess capacity needs and assets

   Assessing preexisting capacities through engagement with stakeholders allows capacity builders to see what areas require additional training, what areas should be prioritized, in what ways capacity building can be incorporated into local and institutional development strategies. The UNDP argues that capacity building that is not rooted in a comprehensive study and assessment of the preexisting conditions will be restricted to training alone, which will not facilitate sustained results.

4. Formulate a capacity development response

   The UNDP says that once an assessment has been completed a capacity building response must be created based on four core issues:

   Institutional arrangements

   Assessments often find that institutions are inefficient because of bad or weak policies, procedures, resource management, organization, leadership, frameworks, and communication. The UNDP and its networks work to fix problems associated with institutional arrangements by developing human resource frameworks "cover policies and procedures for recruitment, deployment and transfer, incentives systems, skills development, performance evaluation systems, and ethics and values."

   Leadership

   the UNDP believes that leadership by either an individual or an organization can catalyze the achievement of development objectives. Strong leadership allows for easier adaption to changes, strong leaders can also influence people. The UNDP uses coaching and mentoring programmers to help encourage the development of leadership skills such as, priority setting, communication and strategic planning.

   Knowledge

   The UNDP believes knowledge is the foundation of capacity. They believe greater investments should be made in establishing strong education systems and opportunities for continued learning and the development of professional skills. They support the engagement in post-secondary education reforms, continued learning and domestic knowledge services.

   Accountability

   the implementation of accountability measures facilitates better performance and efficiency. A lack of accountability measures in institutions allows for the proliferation of corruption. The UNDP promotes the strengthening of accountability frameworks that monitor and evaluate institutions. They also promote independent organizations that oversee, monitor and evaluate institutions. They promote the development of capacities such as literacy and language skills in civil societies that will allow for increased engagement in monitoring institutions.

5. Implement a capacity development response

   Implementing a capacity building program should involve the inclusion of multiple systems: national, local, institutional. It should involve continual reassessment and expect change depending on changing situations. It should include evaluative indicators to measure the effective of initiated programs.

6. Evaluate capacity development

   Evaluation of capacity building promotes accountability. Measurements should be based on changes in an institutions performance. Evaluations should be based on changes in performance based around the four main issues: institutional arrangements, leadership, knowledge, and accountability.

The UNDP integrates this capacity building system into its work on reaching the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The UNDP focuses on building capacity at the institutional level because it believes that "institutions are at the heart of human development, and that when they are able to perform better, sustain that performance over time, and manage 'shocks' to the system, they can contribute more meaningfully to the achievement of national human development goals."

Capacity building in developing countries is explained by Lant Pritchett, Michael Woolcock, and Matt Andres as a fourfold modernization process in the areas of:

• Economy: Enhanced productivity
• Polity: Accurate preference aggregation
• Society: Equal social rights, opportunities
• Administration: Rational, professional, organizations

In this theory, called Modernization Theory, growth over time in these four areas leads to a state becoming developed. The underlying idea behind this theory is that development agencies are tasked with facilitating growth in these four areas in order to speed up the process of development or make the process more equitable.

In governments[edit]

One of the most fundamental ideas associated with capacity building is the idea of building the capacities of governments in developing countries so they are able to handle the problems associated with environmental, economic and social transformations. Developing a government's capacity whether at the local, regional or national level will allow for better governance that can lead to sustainable development and democracy. To avoid authoritarianism in developing nations, a focus has been placed on developing the abilities and skills of national and local governments so power can be diffused across a state. Capacity building in governments often involves providing the tools to help them best fulfill their responsibilities. These include building up a government's ability to budget, collect revenue, create and implement laws, promote civic engagement,^{[full citation needed]}be transparent and accountable and fight corruption.

Joel S. Migdal explains that governments can strengthen weak states by building capacity through changing land tenure patterns, adjusting methods of taxation, and improving modes of transportation. Migdal cites Mexico's passing of Ley de desamortización in 1856 as an example of establishing property rights as a means to strengthen a government's capacity for rule by establishing order. This establishes a social structure to reduce citizen conflict within the state and a means to organize agricultural production for optimal output. Adjusting methods of taxation is another way to consolidate power in a weak state's government. This can be done through increasing government revenue through increased taxation and also formalizing tax collection by collecting taxes in cash instead of in kind. Migdal cites the example of 19th Century Egypt's declaration of cash taxes only as the reason for increased economic capacity as farmers were forced into more market relations, pushing them to produce crops for export to increase cash revenue. This gave the state more liquid income. Also, Migdal explains that new modes of transportation can strengthen a state's capacity through decreased isolation leading to increasing economic opportunity by regional trade, increased accessibility, and reduced cost of transporting goods. Migdal cites the example of the railroad in India in 1853 as a means of growing the cotton export industry by 500%.

Below are examples of capacity building in governments of developing countries:

• In 1999, the UNDP supported capacity building of the state government in Bosnia Herzegovina. The program focused on strengthening the State's government by fostering new organizational, leadership and management skills in government figures, improved the government's technical abilities to communicate with the international community and civil society within the country.^{[full citation needed]}
• Since 2000, developing organizations like the National Area-Based Development Programme have approached the development of local governments in Afghanistan, through a capacity building approach. NABDP holds training sessions across Afghanistan in areas where there exist foundations for local governments. The NABDP holds workshops trying community leaders on how to best address the local needs of the society. Providing weak local government institutions with the capacity to address pertinent problems, reinforces the weak governments and brings them closer to being institutionalized. The goal of capacity builders in Afghanistan is to build up local governments and provide those burgeoning institutions with training that will allow them to address and advocate for what the community needs most. Leaders are trained in "governance, conflict resolution, gender equity, project planning, implementation, management, procurement financial, and disaster management and mitigation."
• The Municipality of Rosario, Batangas, Philippines provided a concrete example related to this concept. This municipal government implemented its Aksyon ng Bayan Rosario 2001 And Beyond Human and Ecological Security Plan using as a core strategy the Minimum Basic Needs Approach to Improved Quality of Life – Community-Based Information System (MBN-CBIS) prescribed by the Philippine Government. This approach helped the municipal government identify priority families and communities for intervention, as well as rationalize the allocation of its social development funds. More importantly, it made definite steps to encourage community participation in situation analysis, planning, monitoring and evaluation of social development projects by building the capacity of local government officials, indigenous leaders and other stakeholders to converge in the management of these concerns.

Isomorphic mimicry[edit]

One approach that some developing countries have attempted to foster capacity building is through isomorphic mimicry. Similar to the concept of mimetic isomorphism used in organizational theory, isomorphic mimicry refers to the tendency of government to mimic other governments' successes by replicating methods and policy designs deemed successful in other countries. While such an approach can be effective for solving certain development problems that have "a universal technical solution", it often ignores the political and organizational realities on the ground and produces little benefits to those using it. An example of a failed mimicry relates to the legal reform in Melanesia. In response to a major international assistance mission to improve the quality of the justice system, a jail and a courthouse were built, costing millions of dollars. However, the new justice infrastructure has been rarely used since its establishment, because there has been a lack of bureaucracy and financial sources to support the expensive justice system. As summarized by Haggard et al., accelerated modernization is an entirely inappropriate strategy for enhancing the functionality of legal system as solutions like this often require state capacities that developing countries do not have. Another example took place in Argentina. During the economic crisis in late 1980s, the government implemented a series of fiscal policies as recommended by IMF to regulate high point inflation affecting the country's economy. However, rather than constraining aggregate spending, the fiscal rule merely shifted spending from the central and to provincial governments. Adopting international best practices do not often translate into positive changes; in the case of Argentina, the mimicry produced little change to the vulnerable economy.

Local[edit]

The capacity building approach is used at many levels throughout, including local, regional, national and international levels. Capacity building can be used to reorganize and capacitate governments or individuals. International donors like USAID often include capacity building as a form of assistance for developing governments or NGOs working in developing areas. Historically this has been through a US contractor identifying an in-country NGO and supporting its financial, M&E and technical systems toward the goals of that USAID intervention. The NGO's capacity is developed as a sub-implementer of the donor. However, many NGOs participate in a form of capacity building that is aimed toward individuals and the building of local capacity. In a recent report commissioned by UNAIDS and the Global Fund, individual NGOs voiced their needs and preference for broader capacity development inputs by donors and governments. For individuals and in-country NGOs, capacity building may relate to leadership development, advocacy skills, training/speaking abilities, technical skills, organizing skills, and other areas of personal and professional development. One of the most difficult problems with building capacity on a local level is the lack of higher education in developing countries. Between 2 and 5 percent of Africans have been to tertiary school.

Another difficulty is ongoing brain drain in developing countries. Often, young people who develop skills and capacities that can allow for sustainable development leave their home country. Damtew Teferra of Boston College's Center for African Higher Education argues that local capacity builders are needed now more than ever and increased resources should be provided for programs that focus on developing local expertise and skills.

The development sector, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa has many decades of 'international technical advisors' working with and mentoring government officials and national non-government organisations. In health service delivery, whether maternal care or HIV related, community organisations have been started and often grew through the strength of their staff and commitment to be national and even regional leaders in their technical fields. Whilst higher education is still an under-served demand, there are significant resources of experienced staff. More recent donor initiatives, including The Global Fund's Community Systems Strengthening and the US PEPFAR Technical Assistance to the New Partners Initiative begin to address the organisation capacity needs and stronger skills to be recognised as part of the national response to health needs in a country. To complete the capacity development cycle, the Global Fund and UNAIDS Technical Support Facility and the TA teams for CSO funded by the New Partners Initiative are staffed and managed by residents and nationals of those same developing countries.

Below are some examples of NGOs and programs that use the term "capacity building" to describe their activities on a local scale:

• The Centre for Community Empowerment (CCEM) is an NGO working in Vietnam that aims to "train the trainers" working in the development sector of Vietnam. The organization believes that the sustainability of a project depends on the level of involvement of stakeholders and so they work to train stakeholders in the skills needed to be active in development projects and encourage the activity of other stakeholders. The organization operates by providing week-long training courses in for local individuals in issues such as project management, report writing, communication, fund-raising, resource mobilization, analysis, and planning. The organization does not create physical projects, rather it develops the capacity of stakeholders to initiate, plan and analyze and develop projects on their own.
• Mercy Ships is a Christian, healthcare NGO, that provides another example of an NGO participating in localized "capacity building." While CECEM devotes its energy to training individuals to be better project managers and participants, Mercy Ships participates in a form of capacity building that focuses on the pre-existing capacities of individuals and builds on those. For example, Mercy Ships focuses on training doctors and nurses about new procedures and technologies. They also focus on building leadership skills through training workshops for teachers, priests and other community leaders. Leaders are then trained in other areas such as care and construction of hygienic water wells.

The first example depicts capacity building as tool to deliver individuals the skills they need to work effectively in civil society. In the case of Mercy Ships, the capacity building is delivering the capacity for individuals to be stakeholders and participants in defined activities, such as health care. Training course about productive sanitation in Aguié Project, Niger

In NGOs[edit]

Societal development in poorer nations is often contingent upon the efficiency of organizations working within that nation. Organizational capacity building focuses on developing the capacities of organizations, specifically NGOs, so they are better equipped to accomplish the missions they have set out to fulfill. Failures in development can often be traced back to an organization's inability to deliver on the service promises it has pledged to keep. Capacity building in NGOs often involves building up skills and abilities, such as decision making, policy-formulation, appraisal, and learning. It is not uncommon for donors in the global north to fund capacity building for NGOs themselves. For organizations, capacity building may relate to almost any aspect of its work: improved governance, leadership, mission and strategy, administration (including human resources, financial management, and legal matters), program development and implementation, fund-raising and income generation, diversity, partnerships and collaboration, evaluation, advocacy and policy change, marketing, positioning, planning. Capacity building in NGOS is a way to strengthen an organization so that it can perform the specific mission it has set out to do and thus survive as an organization. It is an ongoing process that incites organizations to continually reflect on their work, organization, and leadership and ensure that they are fulfilling the mission and goals they originally set out to do.

Alan Kaplan, an international development practitioner, asserts that capacity development of organizations involves the build-up of an organization's tangible and intangible assets. He argues that for an NGO to work efficiently and effectively in developing country they must first focus on developing their organization. Kaplan argues that capacity building in organizations should first focus on intangible qualities such as:

Conceptual framework

An organization's understanding of the world, "This is a coherent frame of reference, a set of concepts which allows the organization to make sense of the world around it, to locate itself within that world, and to make decisions in relation to it."

Organizational attitude

This focuses on the way an organization views itself. Kaplan asserts that an organization must view itself not as a victim of the slights of the world, rather as an active player that has the ability to effect change and progress.

Vision and strategy

This refers to the organization's understanding of its vision and mission and what it is looking to accomplish and the program it wishes to follow to do so

Organizational structure

A clear method of operating wherein communication flow is not hindered, each actor understands their role and responsibility.

Though he asserts that intangible qualities are of utmost importance – Kaplan says that tangible qualities such as skills, training and material resources are also imperative.

Another aspect of organizational capacity building is an organization's capacity to reassess, reexamine and change according to what is most needed and what will be the most effective.

Evaluation[edit]

Since the arrival of community capacity building as such a dominant subject in international aid, donors and practitioners have struggled to determine a concise mechanism for determining the effectiveness of capacity building initiatives. In 2007, David Watson, developed specific criteria for effective evaluation and monitoring of capacity building. Watson complained that the traditional method of monitoring NGOs that is based primarily on a linear results-based framework is not enough for capacity building. He argues that evaluating capacity building NGOS should be based on a combination of monitoring the results of their activities and also a more open flexible way of monitoring that also takes into consideration, self-improvement and cooperation. Watson observed 18 case studies of capacity building evaluations and concluded that certain specific themes were visible:

• monitoring an organization's clarity of mission – this involves evaluating an organization's goals and how well those goals are understood throughout the organization.
• monitoring an organization's leadership – this involves evaluating how empowered the organization's leadership is-how well the leadership encourages experimentation, self-reflection, changes in team structures and approaches.
• monitoring an organization's learning – this involves evaluating how often an organization participates in effective self-reflection, and self-assessment. It also involves how well an organization "learns from experience" and if the organization promotes the idea of learning from experience.
• monitoring an organization's emphasis on on-the-job-development – this involves evaluating how well an organization encourages continued learning, specifically through hands on approaches.
• monitoring an organization's monitoring processes – this involves evaluating how well an organization participates in self-monitoring. It looks at whether or not an organization encourages growth through learning from mistakes.

In 2007, USAID published a report on its approach to monitoring and evaluating capacity building. According to the report, USAID monitors: program objectives, the links between projects and activities of an organization and its objectives, a program or organization's measurable indicators, data collection, and progress reports. USAID evaluates: why objectives were achieved, or why they were not, the overall contributions of projects, it examines qualifiable results that are more difficult to measure, it looks at unintended results or consequences, it looks at reports on lessons learned. USAID uses two types of indicators for progress: "output indicators" and "outcome indicators." Output indicators measure immediate changes or results such as the number of people trained. Outcome indicators measure the impact, such as laws changed due to trained advocates.

Specification[edit]

Community capacity building is much more than training and includes the following:

• Human resource development, the process of equipping individuals with the understanding, skills and access to information, knowledge and training that enables them to perform effectively.
• Organizational development, the elaboration of management structures, processes and procedures, not only within organizations but also the management of relationships between the different organizations and sectors (public, private and community).
• Institutional and legal framework development, making legal and regulatory changes to enable organizations, institutions and agencies at all levels and in all sectors to enhance their capacities. It also interfaces with some work by the New Institutional Economics association led notably by the 1994 Nobel prize winner Douglass North. It tries to lay out the essential organizational and institutional prerequisites for economic and social progress.

Community capacity building is defined as the "process of developing and strengthening the skills, instincts, abilities, processes and resources that organizations and communities need to survive, adapt, and thrive in the fast-changing world."

Community capacity building is the elements that give fluidity, flexibility and functionality of a program/organization to adapt to changing needs of the population that is served.

Infrastructure development has been considered "economic capacity building" because it increases the capacity of any developed or developing society to improve trade, employment, economic development and quality of life. It is also true that where institutional capacity is limited, infrastructure development is probably constrained. Currently the United States infrastructure is rated D or worse by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). This may be an indication that the Institutional Capacity of the USA is constrained and will impact future quality of life issues.

Opportunity management[edit]

Opportunity Management may be defined as "a process to identify business and community development opportunities that could be implemented to sustain or improve the local economy." When driving capacity building initiatives, opportunity management may help to target resources. The opportunity management process will firstly help identify the opportunity for improvement – a challenge that will be addressed by the capacity building initiative. Likewise, criteria will be developed and applied to proposed capacity building initiatives evaluate the effectiveness of the alternatives, and select an option for the driving phase. During the driving phase of the capacity building initiative, leads are assigned, accountability is established, action plans are developed, and project management may be used. Once the driving stage has reached fruition, constant monitoring of the capacity building initiative is required to make a decision to advance, rework or kill the initiative.

If it determined in the monitoring phase that the initiative is not meeting the objectives outlined in the criteria of the evaluating and prioritizing stage, then the initiative will either need to be reworked (often requiring additional resources) or killed – meaning the end of the initiative. Following opportunity management guidelines, it is often effective to end or rework an initiative before excessive resources are wasted on a strategy that has proven not to work.

Partial list of agencies providing capacity building[edit]

European Institutions[edit]

• European Commission

United Nations[edit]

• UNFCCC
• UNAIDS
• UNIDO
• United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
• World Bank
• International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
• World Food Programme (WFP)
• World Tourism Organization (UWNTO), through its UNWTO.Themis Foundation
• World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO)
• World Customs Organization (WCO)

See also[edit]

• Bali Action Plan
• International development
• Organizational development