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Rape Myths edit

Rape myths are beliefs about rape that are widely held, which serve to justify or excuse sexual violence.[1] These myths shape perceptions of what a "typical rape" looks like, and perpetuate problematic assumptions about the causes and effects of rape, as well as about how victims and rapists are likely to behave. Rape myths are widely held among members of the public, police officers and other members of the criminal justice system, and the news media, and they have a significant impact on how rape crimes occur, are prosecuted, and decided in court. They are a major cause of the low rates at which rapes are reported to the police, and of declining conviction rates.[2]

History of the concept edit

Rape myths first became a topic of research during the 1970s, when a number of studies and books explored the concept.[3][4][5] In 1980, Martha Burt defined rape myths as "prejudicial, stereotyped and false beliefs about rape, rape victims and rapists" which create "a climate hostile to rape victims."[6] Burt's definition has been widely used.[7] In 1994, Kimberly A. Lonsway and Louise F. Fitzgerald defined rape myths as "attitudes and beliefs that are generally galse but are widely and persistently held, and that serve to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women."[8] Some scholars, such as Gerd Bohner and Heike Gerger, have argued that descriptors such as "false" and "widely held" should not be included in a formal definition of what rape myths are since myths are often constructed in a way that are impossible to falsify, (as in the example, "many women secretly desire to be raped," where "secret" desire cannot be disproven) and the degree to which rape myths are "widely held" or accepted may vary over time.[9][10] Bohner has offered an alternative definition of rape myths as "descriptive or prescriptive beliefs about rape (ie, about its causes, context, consequences, perpetrators, victims and their interaction) that serve to deny, downplay or justify sexual violence against women."[11][12]

While scholars disagree somewhat on how to precisely define rape myths, however, there is a general consensus that there are four basic types of rape myths: those that blame the victim for their rape, those that express doubt or disbelief about victim's reports of a rape, those that exonerate the rapist, and those that those that suggest that only a certain type of woman gets raped.[13]

Common myths edit

Common rape myths may include:

  • That what the victim is wearing can lead to a sexual assault, or that rape is the victims fault if they wore revealing clothes[19][20][17][21][22]
  • That the victim bears responsibility for the assault if they were intoxicated,[23][24]
  • That when a male pays for a dinner or date, a woman is expected to reciprocate with intercourse.[26][15][17]
  • That women who are raped often deserve it - particularly if they entered a man's apartment or got in his car.[15]
  • That it is not rape unless the victim fights/physically resists, or that it is not rape unless the victim is injured.[15][21]
  • That women fantasize about being raped[1][21]
  • That it is impossible to rape one's wife or intimate partner[1][21]
  • That rape is simply unwanted sex, not a violent crime.[1]
  • That women "ask for" rape[27]or that only certain "kinds of" women, or only promiscuous women are raped.[28][29][18]
  • That men are unable to control themselves once they become sexually excited.[15][21]
  • That women allege rape out of spite, or to overcome guilt after a sexual encounter they regret.[21]
  • That rape is primarily sexually motivated. (research suggests that power and/or anger, not sex, are often the dominant motivator of rapes)[30]




Many rape myths are widely held, and research has shown that police often believe common rape myths and are distrustful of rape victims' claims.[1]

Research has shown that belief in rape myths often correlates with misogynistic attitudes and a more general hostility towards women.[21]

daycare edit

De Jong, The Day Care Ritual Abuse Moral Panic Richard Beck, We Believe the Children Nathan and Snedecker, Satan's Silence


Rasputin edit

was aware of the plot and may have witnessed the assassination - though Cook argues that if he did so, it was only to verify that the assassination had been carried out, and not to encourage or participate in it.[need quotation to verify][31] Several other books and documentaries have claimed British involvement in Rasputin's death, or even alleged that Rayner was the person who fatally shot him.[32][33][34]

Figes: Rasputin scandal "epitomized" the widening gulf between court and society, between the court and elements of society that normally supported it - eg, the church and the army. (13)

Tercentenary jubilee - by that time the "Squabble" between Rasputin "who had come to dominate the court" and pres duma rodzianko at service. (9)

Alexandra: turnign to Dr. Philippe, "a practitioner of 'astral medicine'" the family met in france in 1901. (to produce son). Showed "the empress's susceptibility to bogus forms of mysticism." (27)


"Alexandra consulted numerous doctors, but a cure was beyond their science. She became convinced that only a miracle could save her son." (28)

"It was her desperate need to find a miracle cure that brought Rasputin into her life and into the life of Russia." (28)

Gives rasp bd 1869, says "little more is known about Rasputin's early years." "at some point" he made a pilgrimage to verkhoturye, stayed three months and returned "a much changed man" - no alcohol, did not eat meat, etc. figes says this was makarii's influence. 28.

"it was not exactly the Orthodox faith that Rasputin brought with him from the wilds of Siberia" "strange hybrid" of mysticism and eroticism "had more similarities with the practices of the Khlysty" - Figes said he would have encountered them at Verkoturye, but accusations he was one were never [roved. 29. Klysty believed "that sin was the first step towards redemption" - flagellation, group sex. 29.

claimed to go to Jerusalem after seeing apparition of Holy Mother at age 28, but "no record of this pilgrammage" 29. more likely just wandering around Russia. 29.

1903 first appears St Petersburg, sponsored by Theophan, hermogan, and father john of konstadt. 29.

"It was also a time when the court and social circles of St Petersburg were steeped in alternative forms of religion In the salons of the aristocracy and the drawing-rooms of the middle classes there was a ferment of curiosity about all forms of spiritualism and theosopy, the occult and the supernatural. Seances and ouija boards were all the rage." 29. part of a "more general and profound sense of moral disequilibrium" - "symptomatic of European culture during the decade before 1914." 29.

Rest copied.

Irish stuff edit

According to contemporary sources, around 34,000 men, close to one-sixth of Ireland's adult male population were sent to the Americas.[35]

It seems likely that one of the first Maroon groups on the island was a multiracial mixture of about thirty Irish and African slaves and servants who took shelter in the remaining forest land of St. Philip Parish in the mid-1690s.[36]

Some American liberal groups such as the Southern Poverty Law Center, the website The Raw Story and the British-originated openDemocracy have attacked the narrative as a racist meme and that chattel slavery and indentured servitude are completely different historical experiences.[37][38]

Useful edit

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g Holly Johnson; Bonnie S. Fisher; Veronique Jaquier (5 December 2014). Critical Issues on Violence Against Women: International Perspectives and Promising Strategies. Routledge. pp. 96–. ISBN 978-1-135-00603-7.
  2. ^ Bohner, Gerd & Eyssel, Friederike & Pina, Afroditi & Siebler, Frank & Viki, Tendayi. (2009). "Rape myth acceptance: Cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects of beliefs that blame the victim and exonerate the perpetrator" in Rape: Challenging Contemporary Thinking. 17-45. 10.4324/9781843927129.
  3. ^ Susan Brownmiller (1975). Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. Fawcett Columbine. ISBN 978-0-449-90820-4.
  4. ^ HS Feild, "Attitudes toward rape: A Comparative Analysis of Police, Rapists, Crisis Counselors, and Citizens," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36 (2), 1978: 166- 179.
  5. ^ SCHWENDINGER, JULIA R., and HERMAN SCHWENDINGER. “Rape Myths: In Legal, Theoretical, and Everyday Practice.” Crime and Social Justice, no. 1, 1974, pp. 18–26. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/29765884.
  6. ^ Martha R. Burt, "Cultural Myths and Supports for Rape," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38 (2), 1980: 217-230.
  7. ^ Bohner, Gerd & Eyssel, Friederike & Pina, Afroditi & Siebler, Frank & Viki, Tendayi. (2009). "Rape myth acceptance: Cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects of beliefs that blame the victim and exonerate the perpetrator" in Rape: Challenging Contemporary Thinking. 17-45. 10.4324/9781843927129.
  8. ^ Kimberly A. Lonsway, Louise F. Fitzgerald, "Rape Myths: In Review" Psychology of Women Quarterly 18 (2), June 1994: 133-164.
  9. ^ Bohner, Gerd & Eyssel, Friederike & Pina, Afroditi & Siebler, Frank & Viki, Tendayi. (2009). "Rape myth acceptance: Cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects of beliefs that blame the victim and exonerate the perpetrator" in Rape: Challenging Contemporary Thinking. 17-45. 10.4324/9781843927129.
  10. ^ Heike Gerger, et. al., "The Acceptance of Modern Myths About Sexual Aggression (AMMSA) Scale: Development and validation in German and English," Aggressive Behavior 33 (2007): 422-440.
  11. ^ Gerd Bohner, Vergewaltigungsmythen (Rape Myths) Verlag Empirische Pädagogik, 1998.
  12. ^ Bohner, Gerd & Eyssel, Friederike & Pina, Afroditi & Siebler, Frank & Viki, Tendayi. (2009). "Rape myth acceptance: Cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects of beliefs that blame the victim and exonerate the perpetrator" in Rape: Challenging Contemporary Thinking. 17-45. 10.4324/9781843927129.
  13. ^ Bohner, Gerd & Eyssel, Friederike & Pina, Afroditi & Siebler, Frank & Viki, Tendayi. (2009). "Rape myth acceptance: Cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects of beliefs that blame the victim and exonerate the perpetrator" in Rape: Challenging Contemporary Thinking. 17-45. 10.4324/9781843927129.
  14. ^ Encyclopedia of Mental Health. Elsevier Science. 26 August 2015. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-12-397753-3.
  15. ^ a b c d e f Paula K. Lundberg-Love; Shelly L. Marmion (2006). "Intimate" Violence Against Women: When Spouses, Partners, Or Lovers Attack. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 59–. ISBN 978-0-275-98967-5.
  16. ^ Bohner, Gerd & Eyssel, Friederike & Pina, Afroditi & Siebler, Frank & Viki, Tendayi. (2009). "Rape myth acceptance: Cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects of beliefs that blame the victim and exonerate the perpetrator" in Rape: Challenging Contemporary Thinking. 17-45. 10.4324/9781843927129.
  17. ^ a b c Rebecca M. Hayes1, Katherine Lorenz2, Kristin A. Bell, "Victim Blaming Others: Rape Myth Acceptance and the Just World Belief," Feminist Criminology 8 (3), April 2013: 202-220.
    • "Common rape myths include: the misconception that the victim’s clothing precipitated the assault (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994; Moor, 2010), that women often lie about rape (Burt, 1980; Edwards et al., 2011; Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994;Payne, Lonsway, & Fitzgerald, 1999), that rape is the victim’s fault if they were intoxicated at the time of the assault (Burt, 1980; Hayes-Smith & Levett, 2010) and; when a male pays for a date, the woman is expected to reciprocate with sexual intercourse (Basow & Minieri, 2011).
  18. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference irma1999 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  19. ^ Encyclopedia of Mental Health. Elsevier Science. 26 August 2015. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-12-397753-3.
  20. ^ Bohner, Gerd & Eyssel, Friederike & Pina, Afroditi & Siebler, Frank & Viki, Tendayi. (2009). "Rape myth acceptance: Cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects of beliefs that blame the victim and exonerate the perpetrator" in Rape: Challenging Contemporary Thinking. 17-45. 10.4324/9781843927129.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h Stephanie Scott-Snyder (6 January 2017). Introduction to Forensic Psychology: Essentials for Law Enforcement. CRC Press. pp. 103–. ISBN 978-1-315-29853-5.
  22. ^ Moor, Avigail (2010). She Dresses to Attract, He Perceives Seduction: A Gender Gap in Attribution of Intent to Women’s Revealing Style of Dress and its Relation to Blaming the Victims of Sexual Violence. Journal of International Women's Studies, 11(4), 115-127.
  23. ^ Encyclopedia of Mental Health. Elsevier Science. 26 August 2015. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-12-397753-3.
  24. ^ Hayes, R. M., Lorenz, K., & Bell, K. A. (2013). Victim blaming others: Rape myth acceptance and the just world belief. Feminist Criminology, 1557085113484788.
  25. ^ Ben-David, S. & Schneider, O. Sex Roles (2005) 53: 385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-6761-4
  26. ^ Encyclopedia of Mental Health. Elsevier Science. 26 August 2015. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-12-397753-3.
  27. ^ Martha R. Burt, "Cultural Myths and Supports for Rape," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38 (2), 1980: 217-230.
  28. ^ Bohner, Gerd & Eyssel, Friederike & Pina, Afroditi & Siebler, Frank & Viki, Tendayi. (2009). "Rape myth acceptance: Cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects of beliefs that blame the victim and exonerate the perpetrator" in Rape: Challenging Contemporary Thinking. 17-45. 10.4324/9781843927129.
  29. ^ Martha R. Burt, "Cultural Myths and Supports for Rape," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38 (2), 1980: 217-230.
  30. ^ Ben-David, S. & Schneider, O. Sex Roles (2005) 53: 385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-6761-4
  31. ^ Mark Kulikowski, "Andrew Cook. To Kill Rasputin: The Life and Death of Grigori Rasputin (book review). Canadian-American Slavic Studies Volume 42, Issue 4 (2008), 478-480.
  32. ^ Miller, Karyn (19 September 2004). "British spy 'fired the shot that finished off Rasputin'". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 7 September 2007.
  33. ^ Rasputin assassinated by British Secret Service - BBC Timewatch documentary, BBC Press Office, Press Release, 19th September 2004
  34. ^ Cullen, Richard., Rasputin: The Role of Britain's Secret Service in His Torture and Murder. Published by Dialogue (2011).
  35. ^ Gallup-Diaz 2015, p. 75.
  36. ^ Cite error: The named reference Newman 2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  37. ^ Cite error: The named reference opendemocracy.net was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  38. ^ "How the Myth of the "Irish slaves" Became a Favorite Meme of Racists Online". Southern Poverty Law Center.
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