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Baltic Campaign of the Crimean War
Part of the Crimean War

A British illustration of the Bombardment of Sveaborg
Date1 April 1854 – 9 August 1855
Location
Baltic Sea
Result Indecisive
Belligerents
RussiaRussian Empire FranceFrench Empire
United KingdomUnited Kingdom
Commanders and leaders
Russia Alexander Arkadyevich Suvorov
Russia Pavel Grabbe		 France Alexandre Ferdinand Parseval-Deschenes
United Kingdom Charles Napier
United Kingdom James Hanway Plumridge
Strength
270,000 Soldiers
400 Ships		 France 10,000 Soldiers
United Kingdom 48 Ships

The Baltic Campaign of the Crimean War a part of the Crimean War.

Background edit

At the start of the war, the Russian Empire was in control of the Baltic Sea coastline stretching from modern day Finland and into Lithuania. Estonia and northern Latvia had been incorporated in the aftermath of the Great Northern War, while the remainder of the Baltic states were conquered from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth between 1772 and 1795. Finland and the Åland Islands were seized from Sweden as a result of the Finnish War of 1809. Control over the aforementioned territories remained tentative. Polish and Baltic peoples frequently engaged in nationalist uprisings, the most notable of which being the November Uprising of 1831.[1] In Finland, Scandinavist students blended their admiration for Swedish culture with revanchist and Russophobic attitudes.[2] The war brought increased taxation, conscription into coastal defense units and the requirement to maintain the quality of local roads, and provide quarters for the newly arrived Russian soldiers worsened the disposition of the indigenous population. On 5 March 1854, the Russian government even deliberated the forced resettlement of non Orthodox and non Russian, Baltic landlords to the interior of Russia. The plan was canceled after Baltic German nobles organized patriotic demonstrations and sent their sons as volunteers into the Russian army. [1]

At the outbreak of the war Russian general and military expert Dmitry Milyutin expressed the opinion that at least 400,000 troops would be required for the Baltic provinces to be sufficiently defended. However as the focus of the war kept shifting south, only a garrison of 270,000 men was retained.[3] 80,000 were stationed between Saint Petersburg and Kronstadt, 80,000 in Sveaborg (Suomenlinna) and Helsingfors, 40,000 in Western Dvina, additionally 70,000 were members of permanent garrisons.[4] The Russian Baltic Fleet numbered 3,652 guns, 196 units and 43,110 men.[1] Ιts 218 ships included: 26 ships of the line, 17 frigates and [[corvettes] and 11 steamers. Those were divided into three divisions, the first two being stationed in the naval fortress of Kronstadt and the third in Sveaborg, both in the Gulf of Finland. Additionally, 18 small steamers and 64 paddled gunboats conducted patrols of the Finnish coast.[5] The lack of protection experienced by the rest of the Baltic coast was partially remedied with the formation of [gunboat battalions in Åbo, Reval and Riga, eventually reaching 400 ships.[3]

On 14 December 1853, the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway and the Kingdom of Denmark proclaimed their strict neutrality, which was recognized by both Britain and France, yet not by Russia. Having previously engaged the British Empire in the Battle of Copenhagen and the Gunboat War while also receiving Russian diplomatic support in the First Schleswig War, Danish officials were convinced that their neutral status would be respected. On the other hand Sweden and Norway's alliance with Russia, established during the Napoleonic Wars steadily deteriorated. The augmentation of Russian fortifications on the Åland Islands, Russian opposition to the creation of a free port on Slite, the disruption Sami migrations and Russian aspirations over Finnmark being the main reasons. On 20 March 1854, First Lord of the Admiralty Sir James Graham requested naval officer Charles Napier to examine the possibility of an Anglo–Swedish alliance, in exchange Sweden was to receive the Åland Islands and the Grand Duchy of Finland at the conclusion of the war. Secretary of War John Russell brought a similar proposal to the British Cabinet on three occasions during the period of March–May 1854 receiving little support. On 31 May, Swedish king Oscar I informed the French ambassador Charles Victor Lobstein that Sweden would join the Allies shall Austria do the same. Franco–Swedish negotiations continued between 4–7 July and again on 15 July. The Swedish king agreed to enter the war on the condition that the Allies dispatch 60,000 troops to the Baltic and provide a subsidy of 6 to 7 million French francs for him to mobilize an army of a comparable size. Further negotiations stalled, as France was only able to provide 10,000 troops and the British navy failed to demonstrate its full operational capacity.[6] The Kingdom of Prussia on the other hand, although officially neutral, became a hub for contraband destined for Russia. British war profiteers such as the Steam Navigation Company ran regular lines between Dunkerque and Memel supplying Russia with 68-Pounder Lancaster gun, congreve rockets and coal. Ships from the United States of America,Prussia, Belgium and the Netherlands also took part in the lucrative trade. The ownership of a total of 52 Russian vessels was transferred into the hands of Lübeck citizens, enabling them to evade the blockade, as ships belonging to neutral countries were not subjected to the blockade until late May 1855.[7][8]

Campaign edit

On 23 February 1854, British vice admiral Charles Napier was appointed as the commander of the yet non existent British Baltic Fleet.[1] A fleet consisting of a mix of sailships and steamboats was hastily assembled, with the aim to blockade the Russian navy within the Baltic Sea, preventing it from conducting raids on Britain, offensive operations were to be limited until the arrival of reinforcements. Formerly a promising officer Napier had by that time become senile, lazy and undisciplined due to his alcoholism. The reason behind his appointment was the lack of young, healthy and experienced officers in the British navy. This was caused by the practice of promoting officers by seniority alone. Thus by 1854, only Napier appeared to be the only unemployed, high ranking officer fitting the standards to command a fleet.[9] On 14 March 1854, the fleet consisting of the ships departed from The Downs, reaching the Wingo Sound on the Swedish coast, on 18 March. A day later, Napier left the fleet under the supervision of rear admiral James Hanway Plumridge, heading towards Copenhagen aboard Valorous. Napier used the opportunity to inform himself about the condition of the ice in the Baltic and Russian maneuvers, while Plumridge held fire drills. While in Copenhagen, Napier was notified that HMS James Watt, HMS Prince Regent (1823) and HMS Majestic (1853) were to augment his fleet the moment crews would become available. On 21 March, Napier returned to his fleet, the following day the fleet sailed towards Kioge Bay, exploiting the early thaw. The absence of maritime pilots in combination with the heavy draught and armament of the ships made navigation through the Great Belt extremely difficult. On the morning of 27 March, the fleet passed near Nyborg, at 21.00 p.m. it anchored at Kiel, Prussia. While at Kiel, Napier sent a number of telegrams complaining about the absence of experienced personnel and gunboats of shallow draught under his command, severely restricting the possibility of operations in the Gulf of Riga. On 29 March, the squadron was joined by HMS Odin (1846) and HMS Lightning (1823). On 1 April, the fleet anchored at Kioge Bay, enacting the blockade.[10]

In the meantime, the governor general of the Baltic Krai Alexander Arkadyevich Suvorov, ordered the placement of Jacobi and Nobel naval mines in the vicinity of the Forts Pavel and Alexander (Kronstadt), near Sveaborg, Revel and Lisy Nos. The Nobel mines proved to be faulty, exploding while being laid, failing to explode or detaching from their wires and drifting uncontrollably, at least 70 of them were subsequently disarmed by the British. The galvanic cell, Jacobi mines proved to be far more effective and the Allies did not dare to approach them. An anonymous letter directed towards Alexander I of Russia, prompted the inspection of Kronstadt, Helsingfors and Sveaborg. The results did not inspire confidence in the ability of the forts to withstand an attack, thus Fyodor Matyushkin and the commander of the newly appointed commander of the Kronstadt garrison Pavel Grabbe oversaw the necessary repairs. The head of the Russian navy Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov adopted a defensive approach in regard to the Baltic reinforcing the defenses of the Gulf of Finland and repairing older ships, in parallel offensive operations were restricted. [11] Between 4 and 7 April, HMS Archer (1849), HMS Caesar (1853), HMS Magicienne (1849), HMS Basilisk (1848), HMS Driver (1840) HMS Cruizer (1852), HMS Desperate (1849), James Watt and HMS Boscawen (1844) joined the British fleet. On 5 April, Plumridge was sent to reconnoiter the fortifications and the state of the ice around the Hanko Peninsula, at the head of Tribune, Imperieuse, Leopard, Dauntless and Lightning. Napier received orders, commanding him to blockade the Gulf of Finland and cut the supply lines between Finland and the Åland Islands. The strength of the Bomarsund garrison was to be established, while attacks on the territories to the rear of the blockade were left to his own discretion. Plumridge returned, having spotted seven ships of the line and one frigate, noting that the Gulf of Finland was free of ice, enabling the fleet to proceed.[12][13]

On 12 April, the British fleet departed from Kioge Bay, passing east of Gotland. Rear Admiral Armar Lowry Corry's squadron (Royal George, Hogue, Boscawen, Neptune, Ajax, Blenheim, Vulture, Dragon, Desperate and Euryalus) was entrusted with intercepting enemy ships between the Dager Ort lighthouse and Huvudskär. Conflict and Cruizer blockaded the area between the Gulf of Riga and Libau, while Archer patrolled around Felsand. A squadron of steamers under Plumridge embarked towards the Gulf of Bothnia. Napier left for the Gulf of Finland at the head of Gorgon, Driver, Imperieuse, Leopard, Magicienne, Edinburgh, Princess Royal, St Jean d'Acre, Cressy, Caesar, Imperieuse and Duke of Wellington. Other ships On 21 April, Napier's squadron anchored at Elsgnabben Bay in Sweden, where it stayed until weather conditions improved. On 16 April, Conflict captured a Russian barque, three more ships followed the next day, they were sent to Memel as prizes of war. At Elsgnabben, the fleet was reinforced by HMS Porcupine (1844), HMS Cumberland (1842), HMS Prince Regent (1823) as well as French ship Austerlitz (1852) of the French Baltic Fleet. On 27 April, Amphion seized the Russian barque Carolina in the Gulf of Riga, towing her to Fårö. On 20 May, Napier's squadron set off from Elsgnabben, briefly exchanging fire with the Gustavsward fortress on the Hanko Peninsula and scouting as far as the Renskar lighthouse. On 21 May, HMS Penelope (1829) arrived from England, on the same day the British bombarded the town of Ekkes.[14] [15] On 12 June, Napier's squadron anchored outside Sveaborg, surveying its environs. On 13 June, the remainder of the French Baltic Fleet consisting of 7 ships of the line (Inflexible (flagship), Hercule, Jemmapes, Trident, Tage, Duguesclin, Couronne), 7 frigates (Zénobie, Virginie, Darien, Andromaque, Sémillante, Vengeance, Poursuivante) and 4 steamers (Lucifer, Milan, Phlegethon, Souffleur, arrived at Fårö, the French were commanded by admiral Alexandre Ferdinand Parseval-Deschenes. Deschenes and Napier retained the commands of their respective fleets. [16]

On 20 June, Napier laid out his plan concerning future operations. A direct attack on Sveaborg was rejected due to the passage to its harbor being too narrow, similar concerns were raised in the case of Kronstadt. Instead Napier proposed conducting an ampibious assault on Bomarsund turning the 10,000 available Allied sailors into marines.

pg 201 (255) [17]

190-195 (245-249) describing Sveaborg

181-183 (235-237)

HMS Duke of Wellington (1852) (flagship), HMS St Jean d'Acre (1853), HMS Edinburgh (1811), HMS Royal George (1827), HMS Cressy (1853), HMS Ajax (1809), HMS Blenheim (1813),


HMS Monarch (1832), HMS Neptune (1832)

HMS Alban (1826) 


HMS Leopard (1850), HMS Dauntless (1847), HMS Hogue (1811), HMS Valorous (1851), HMS Miranda (1851), HMS Bulldog (1845), HMS Hecla (1839), , HMS Vulture (1843), HMS Arrogant (1848), HMS Princess Royal (1853), HMS Gorgon (1837), HMS Conflict (1846), HMS Dragon (1845), HMS Euryalus (1853),HMS Amphion (1846), , HMS Tribune (1853), HMS Desperate (1849), HMS Imperieuse (1852) and


''

Duperré

HMS Pigmy 

hospital ship HMS Belleisle (1819)
surveying ships Alban and Lightning

paddle steamers Penelope, HMS Basilisk (1848), HMS Driver (1840), Pigmy, Porcupine, Magicienne sailing ships HMS St George (1840), Prince Regent, Monarch, HMS Boscawen (1844), Neptune, Cumberland 

Ships of the line Hogue, HMS Nile (1839), Royal George, Princess Royal, St Jean d'Acre, Duke of Wellington, Majestic, James Watt, HMS Caesar (1853), Cressy, Blenheim, Ajax, Edinburgh


HMS Otter (1837) HMS Zephyr (1823) HMS Cuckoo (1837) HMS Portland (1822) HMS Fox (1829) HMS Cossack (1854) HMS Ruby (1854) HMS Merlin (1838) HMS Firefly (1832)


[1] [9] [18]


[13]


[19] [20] [21] [13] [22] [23] [2] [24]


 
A map of the positions of the attacking ships

Aftermath edit

Notes edit

Citations
  1. ^ a b c d e Anderson 1972, pp. 42–43.
  2. ^ a b Barton 2005, pp. 135–137.
  3. ^ a b Anderson 1972, p. 43.
  4. ^ Tarle 1944, p. 43.
  5. ^ Chernov 1990, p. 68.
  6. ^ Anderson 1969, pp. 263–268.
  7. ^ Anderson 1972, pp. 46–48.
  8. ^ Napier 1857, pp. 97–99, 172–174.
  9. ^ a b Hamilton 1976, pp. 90–91.
  10. ^ Napier 1857, pp. 37–52, 82–89, 114–115, 182.
  11. ^ Tarle 1944, pp. 44–48.
  12. ^ Napier 1857, pp. 91–99.
  13. ^ a b c Colvile 1941, pp. 72–80.
  14. ^ Tarle 1944, pp. 55–58.
  15. ^ Napier 1857, pp. 110–170.
  16. ^ Napier 1857, pp. 170–186.
  17. ^ Napier 1857, pp. 186–220.
  18. ^ Napier 1857, pp. 40–55.
  19. ^ Anderson 1969, pp. 263–275.
  20. ^ Anderson 1972, pp. 42–59.
  21. ^ Chernov 1990, pp. 68–75.
  22. ^ Hamilton 1976, pp. 89–112.
  23. ^ Tarle 1944, pp. 43–50.
  24. ^ Napier 1857, pp. 90–91.

References edit

  • Anderson, Edgar (1969). "The Scandinavian Area and the Crimean War in the Baltic". Scandinavian Studies. 41 (3). University of Illinois Press: 263–275. JSTOR 40917005. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  • Anderson, Edgar (1972). "The Role of the Crimean War in Northern Europe". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 20 (1). Franz Steiner Verlag: 42–59. JSTOR 41044464. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  • Barton, Arnold (2005). "Scandinavianism, Fennomania, and the Crimean War". Journal of Baltic Studies. 36 (2). Taylor & Francis: 131–156. doi:10.1080/01629770500000011. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  • Chernov, Yuri (1990). Дважды Краснознаменный Балтийский флот [Twice Red Banner Baltic Fleet] (in Russian). Moscow: Boenizdat.
  • Colvile, R. (1941). "The Baltic as a Theatre of War". Royal United Services Institution. Journal. 86 (541). Taylor & Francis: 72–80. doi:10.1080/03071844109424963. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  • Hamilton, C.I. (1976). "Sir James Graham, The Baltic Campaign and War-Planning at the Admiralty in 1854". The Historical Journal. 19 (1). Cambridge University Press: 89–112. doi:10.1017/S0018246X0001832X. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  • Napier, Charles (1857). The History of the Baltic Campaign of 1854. London: R. Bentley. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  • Tarle, Yevgeny (1944). Крымская война [Crimean War] (in Russian). Vol. II. Moscow: Soviet Academy of Sciences.

60°8′53″N 24°59′11″E / 60.14806°N 24.98639°E / 60.14806; 24.98639


Category:Battles involving the United Kingdom Category:Battles involving France Category:Battles involving Russia Category:Suomenlinna Category:Battles of the Crimean War Category:1855 in Europe Category:Conflicts in 1855

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