Wikipedia

List of parties to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

The contracting states to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) are the states that have signed and ratified the international agreement banning all nuclear explosions in all environments. Technically they will not be "parties" until the treaty enters into force,[1] at which point these states will also be Member States of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), which comes into existence upon entry into force of the treaty. Non-contracting states are also listed, including those that are signatories and those are not. States Signatories are Members of the CTBTO Preparatory Commission.

Participation in the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

On September 24, 1996, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) was opened for signature. All five nuclear weapons states recognized under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) signed the treaty, with 66 other states following that day.[2] Fiji became the first state to ratify the treaty on October 10, 1996. As of March 2024, 187 states have signed and 178 states have ratified the treaty. Most recently, Papua New Guinea ratified the treaty in March 2024.[3][4][5][6][7]

Signatures are received at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City by authorized representatives of the state.[8] Ratification is achieved with the approval of either or both chamber of the legislature and executive of the state. The instrument of ratification serves as the document binding the state to the international treaty and can be accepted only with the validating signature of the head of state or other official with full powers to sign it.[9] The instrument is deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.[10]

Under the CTBT, there are 195 Annex 1 states[11] which include a subset of 44 Annex 2 states.[12]

  • Annex 1 states are agreed upon by conference and currently comprise all 193 United Nations member states, the Cook Islands, Holy See and Niue. All Annex 1 states may become members of the Executive Council, the principal decision-making body of the organization responsible for supervising its activities.[13] These states are formally bound to the conditions of the treaty; however, their ratification is not necessary for the treaty to come into effect (unless they are also an Annex 2 state).
  • Annex 2 states are those that formally participated in the 1996 Conference on Disarmament and possessed nuclear power or research reactors at the time.[14] Annex 2 lists the following 44 States: Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Islamic Republic of Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Republic of Korea, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, United States of America, and Vietnam.

Nine Annex 2 states have not ratified the treaty: China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Russia and the United States have already signed the Treaty, whereas India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed it. The treaty will come into force only with the signature and ratification of the above Annex 2 states of the treaty, 180 days after they have all deposited their instruments of ratification.[15]

Summary edit

Status Annex 2 states Not Annex 2 states Total Membership
Signed and ratified 35 143 178 Parties to the CTBT
Member States of the CTBT Preparatory Commission
Member States of the CTBTO (after entry into force)
Only signed 6 3 9 Member States of the CTBT Preparatory Commission
Non-signatory 3 6 9
Total 44 152 196

Ratifying states edit

State[5][3] Annex Signed Ratified
  Afghanistan 1 Sep 24, 2003 Sep 24, 2003
  Albania 1 Sep 27, 1996 Apr 23, 2003
  Algeria 21, 2 Oct 15, 1996 Jul 11, 2003
  Andorra 1 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 12, 2006
  Angola 1 Sep 27, 1996 Mar 20, 2015
  Antigua and Barbuda 1 Apr 16, 1997 Jan 11, 2006
  Argentina 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Dec 4, 1998
  Armenia 1 Oct 1, 1996 Jul 12, 2006
  Australia 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 9, 1998
  Austria 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Mar 13, 1998
  Azerbaijan 1 Jul 28, 1997 Feb 2, 1999
  Bahamas 1 Feb 4, 2005 Nov 30, 2007
  Bahrain 1 Sep 24, 1996 Apr 12, 2004
  Bangladesh 21, 2 Oct 24, 1996 Mar 8, 2000
  Barbados 1 Jan 14, 2008 Jan 14, 2008
  Belarus 1 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 13, 2000
  Belgium 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Jun 29, 1999
  Belize 1 Nov 14, 2001 Mar 26, 2004
  Benin 1 Sep 27, 1996 Mar 6, 2001
  Bolivia 1 Sep 24, 1996 Oct 4, 1999
  Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 Sep 24, 1996 Oct 26, 2006
  Botswana 1 Sep 16, 2002 Oct 28, 2002
  Brazil 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 24, 1998
  Brunei 1 Jan 22, 1997 Jan 10, 2013
  Bulgaria 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 29, 1999
  Burkina Faso 1 Sep 27, 1996 Apr 17, 2002
  Burundi 1 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 24, 2008
  Cabo Verde 1 Oct 1, 1996 Mar 1, 2006
  Cambodia 1 Sep 26, 1996 Nov 10, 2000
  Cameroon 1 Nov 16, 2001 Feb 6, 2006
  Canada 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Dec 18, 1998
  Central African Republic 1 Dec 19, 2001 May 26, 2010
  Chad 1 Oct 18, 1996 Feb 8, 2013
  Chile 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 12, 2000
  Colombia 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Jan 29, 2008
  Comoros 1 Dec 12, 1996 Feb 19, 2021
  Democratic Republic of the Congo 21, 2 Oct 4, 1996 Sep 28, 2004
  Republic of the Congo 1 Feb 11, 1997 Sep 2, 2014
  Cook Islands 1 Dec 5, 1997 Sep 6, 2005
  Costa Rica 1 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 25, 2001
  Côte d'Ivoire 1 Sep 25, 1996 Mar 11, 2003
  Croatia 1 Sep 24, 1996 Mar 2, 2001
  Cuba 1 Feb 4, 2021 Feb 4, 2021
  Cyprus 1 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 18, 2003
  Czech Republic 1 Nov 12, 1996 Sep 11, 1997
  Denmark 1 Sep 24, 1996 Dec 21, 1998
  Djibouti 1 Oct 21, 1996 Jul 15, 2005
  Dominica 1 May 25, 2022 Jun 30, 2022
  Dominican Republic 1 Oct 3, 1996 Sep 4, 2007
  Ecuador 1 Sep 24, 1996 Nov 12, 2001
  El Salvador 1 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 11, 1998
  Equatorial Guinea 1 Oct 9, 1996 Sep 21, 2022
  Eritrea 1 Nov 11, 2003 Nov 11, 2003
  Estonia 1 Nov 20, 1996 Aug 13, 1999
  Eswatini 1 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 21, 2016
  Ethiopia 1 Sep 25, 1996 Aug 8, 2006
  Federated States of Micronesia 1 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 25, 1997
  Fiji 1 Sep 24, 1996 Oct 10, 1996
  Finland 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Jan 15, 1999
  France 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Apr 6, 1998
  Gabon 1 Oct 7, 1996 Sep 20, 2000
  Gambia 1 Apr 9, 2003 Mar 24, 2022
  Georgia 1 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 27, 2002
  Germany 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Aug 20, 1998
  Ghana 1 Oct 3, 1996 Jun 14, 2011
  Greece 1 Sep 24, 1996 Apr 21, 1999
  Grenada 1 Oct 10, 1996 Aug 19, 1998
  Guatemala 1 Sep 20, 1999 Jan 12, 2012
  Guinea 1 Oct 3, 1996 Sep 20, 2011
  Guinea-Bissau 1 Apr 11, 1997 Sep 24, 2013
  Guyana 1 Sep 7, 2000 Mar 7, 2001
  Haiti 1 Sep 24, 1996 Dec 1, 2005
  Holy See 1 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 18, 2001
  Honduras 1 Sep 25, 1996 Oct 30, 2003
  Hungary 21, 2 Sep 25, 1996 Jul 13, 1999
  Iceland 1 Sep 24, 1996 Jun 26, 2000
  Indonesia 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Feb 6, 2012
  Iraq 1 Aug 19, 2008 Sep 26, 2013
  Ireland 1 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 15, 1999
  Italy 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Feb 1, 1999
  Jamaica 1 Nov 11, 1996 Nov 13, 2001
  Japan 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 8, 1997
  Jordan 1 Sep 26, 1996 Aug 25, 1998
  Kazakhstan 1 Sep 30, 1996 May 14, 2002
  Kenya 1 Nov 14, 1996 Nov 30, 2000
  Kiribati 1 Sep 7, 2000 Sep 7, 2000
  Kuwait 1 Sep 24, 1996 May 6, 2003
  Kyrgyzstan 1 Oct 8, 1996 Oct 2, 2003
  Laos 1 Jul 30, 1997 Oct 5, 2000
  Latvia 1 Sep 24, 1996 Nov 20, 2001
  Lebanon 1 Sep 16, 2005 Nov 11, 2008
  Lesotho 1 Sep 30, 1996 Sep 14, 1999
  Liberia 1 Oct 1, 1996 Aug 17, 2009
  Libya 1 Nov 13, 2001 Jan 6, 2004
  Liechtenstein 1 Sep 27, 1996 Sep 21, 2004
  Lithuania 1 Oct 7, 1996 Feb 7, 2000
  Luxembourg 1 Sep 24, 1996 May 26, 1999
  Macedonia 1 Oct 29, 1998 Mar 14, 2000
  Madagascar 1 Oct 9, 1996 Sep 15, 2005
  Malawi 1 Oct 9, 1996 Nov 11, 2008
  Malaysia 1 Jul 23, 1998 Jan 17, 2008
  Maldives 1 Oct 1, 1997 Sep 7, 2000
  Mali 1 Feb 18, 1997 Aug 4, 1999
  Malta 1 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 23, 2001
  Marshall Islands 1 Sep 24, 1996 Oct 28, 2009
  Mauritania 1 Sep 24, 1996 Apr 30, 2003
  Mexico 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Oct 5, 1999
  Moldova 1 Sep 24, 1997 Jan 16, 2007
  Monaco 1 Oct 1, 1996 Dec 18, 1998
  Mongolia 1 Oct 1, 1996 Aug 8, 1997
  Montenegro
(succession from Serbia and Montenegro) 		1 Oct 23, 2006 Oct 23, 2006
  Morocco 1 Sep 24, 1996 Apr 17, 2000
  Mozambique 1 Sep 26, 1996 Nov 4, 2008
  Myanmar 1 Nov 25, 1996 Sep 21, 2016
  Namibia 1 Sep 24, 1996 Jun 29, 2001
  Nauru 1 Sep 8, 2000 Nov 12, 2001
  Netherlands 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Mar 23, 1999
  New Zealand 1 Sep 27, 1996 Mar 19, 1999
  Nicaragua 1 Sep 24, 1996 Dec 5, 2000
  Niger 1 Oct 3, 1996 Sep 9, 2002
  Nigeria 1 Sep 8, 2000 Sep 27, 2001
  Niue 1 Apr 9, 2012 Mar 4, 2014
  Norway 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 15, 1999
  Oman 1 Sep 23, 1999 Jun 13, 2003
  Palau 1 Aug 12, 2003 Aug 1, 2007
  Panama 1 Sep 24, 1996 Mar 23, 1999
  Papua New Guinea 1 Sep 25, 1996 Mar 13, 2024
  Paraguay 1 Sep 25, 1996 Oct 4, 2001
  Peru 21, 2 Sep 25, 1996 Nov 12, 1997
  Philippines 1 Sep 24, 1996 Feb 23, 2001
  Poland 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 May 25, 1999
  Portugal 1 Sep 24, 1996 Jun 26, 2000
  Qatar 1 Sep 24, 1996 Mar 3, 1997
  Romania 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Oct 5, 1999
  Rwanda 1 Nov 30, 2004 Nov 30, 2004
  Saint Kitts and Nevis 1 Mar 23, 2004 Apr 27, 2005
  Saint Lucia 1 Oct 4, 1996 Apr 5, 2001
  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1 Jul 2, 2009 Sep 23, 2009
  Samoa 1 Oct 9, 1996 Sep 27, 2002
  San Marino 1 Oct 7, 1996 Mar 12, 2002
  São Tomé and Príncipe 1 Sep 26, 1996 Sep 22, 2022
  Senegal 1 Sep 26, 1996 Jun 9, 1999
  Serbia
(continuing the membership of Serbia and Montenegro) 		1 Jun 8, 2001 May 19, 2004
  Seychelles 1 Sep 24, 1996 Apr 13, 2004
  Sierra Leone 1 Sep 8, 2000 Sep 17, 2001
  Singapore 1 Jan 14, 1999 Nov 10, 2001
  Slovakia 21, 2 Sep 30, 1996 Mar 3, 1998
  Slovenia 1 Sep 24, 1996 Aug 31, 1999
  Solomon Islands 1 Oct 3, 1996 Jan 20, 2023
  South Africa 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Mar 30, 1999
  South Korea 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 24, 1999
  Spain 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Jul 31, 1998
  Sri Lanka 1 Oct 24, 1996 Jul 25, 2023
  Sudan 1 Jun 10, 2004 Jun 10, 2004
  Suriname 1 Jan 14, 1997 Feb 7, 2006
  Sweden 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Dec 2, 1998
   Switzerland 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Oct 1, 1999
  Tajikistan 1 Oct 7, 1996 Jun 10, 1998
  Tanzania 1 Sep 30, 2004 Sep 30, 2004
  Thailand 1 Nov 12, 1996 Sep 25, 2018
  Timor-Leste 1 Sep 26, 2008 Aug 1, 2022
  Togo 1 Oct 2, 1996 Jul 2, 2004
  Trinidad and Tobago 1 Oct 8, 2009 May 26, 2010
  Tunisia 1 Oct 16, 1996 Sep 23, 2004
  Turkey 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Feb 16, 2000
  Turkmenistan 1 Sep 24, 1996 Feb 20, 1998
  Tuvalu 1 Sep 25, 2018 Mar 31, 2022
  Uganda 1 Nov 7, 1996 Mar 14, 2001
  Ukraine 21, 2 Sep 27, 1996 Feb 23, 2001
  United Arab Emirates 1 Sep 25, 1996 Sep 18, 2000
  United Kingdom 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Apr 6, 1998
  Uruguay 1 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 21, 2001
  Uzbekistan 1 Oct 3, 1996 May 29, 1997
  Vanuatu 1 Sep 24, 1996 Sep 16, 2005
  Venezuela 1 Oct 3, 1996 May 13, 2002
  Vietnam 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996 Mar 10, 2006
  Zambia 1 Dec 3, 1996 Feb 23, 2006
  Zimbabwe 1 Oct 13, 1999 Feb 13, 2019

Signatory states edit

The following 9 states have signed but not ratified the treaty.

State[5][3] Annex Signed
  China 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996
  Egypt 21, 2 Oct 14, 1996
  Iran 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996
  Israel 21, 2 Sep 25, 1996
    Nepal 1 Oct 8, 1996
  Russia[a] 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996
  Somalia 1 Sep 8, 2023
  United States 21, 2 Sep 24, 1996
  Yemen 1 Sep 30, 1996
Notes
  1. ^ Ratified the treaty on 30 June 2000,[16] but subsequently withdrew its ratification, while remaining a signatory, on 3 November 2023.[17]

Non-signatory states edit

The following 9 UN member states, in addition to the UN observer State of Palestine, have neither signed nor acceded to the treaty.

State Annex
  Bhutan 1
  India 21, 2
  Mauritius 1
  North Korea 21, 2
  Pakistan 21, 2
  Saudi Arabia 1
  South Sudan 1
  Syria 1
  Tonga 1

Ratification progress edit

India

In 1998, India said it would only sign the treaty if the United States presented a schedule for eliminating its nuclear stockpile, a condition the United States rejected.[18]

Israel

In 2016, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said that its ratification was dependent upon "the regional context and the appropriate timing".[19]

United States

The United States has signed the CTBT, but not ratified it; there is ongoing debate whether to ratify the CTBT.

The United States has stated that its ratification of the CTBT is conditional upon:

A: The conduct of a Science Based Stockpile Stewardship Program to ensure a high level of confidence in the safety and reliability of nuclear weapons in the active stockpile, including the conduct of a broad range of effective and continuing experimental programs.
B: The maintenance of modern nuclear laboratory facilities and programs in theoretical and exploratory nuclear technology which will attract, retain, and ensure the continued application of our human scientific resources to those programs on which continued progress in nuclear technology depends.
C: The maintenance of the basic capability to resume nuclear test activities prohibited by the CTBT should the United States cease to be bound to adhere to this treaty.
D: Continuation of a comprehensive research and development program to improve our treaty monitoring capabilities and operations.
E: The continuing development of a broad range of intelligence gathering and analytical capabilities and operations to ensure accurate and comprehensive information on worldwide nuclear arsenals, nuclear weapons development programs, and related nuclear programs.
F: The understanding that if the President of the United States is informed by the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Energy (DOE) – advised by the Nuclear Weapons Council, the Directors of DOE's nuclear weapons laboratories and the Commander of the U.S. Strategic Command – that a high level of confidence in the safety or reliability of a nuclear weapon type which the two Secretaries consider to be critical to the U.S. nuclear deterrent could no longer be certified, the President, in consultation with Congress, would be prepared to withdraw from the CTBT under the standard "supreme national interests" clause in order to conduct whatever testing might be required.[20]

Proponents of ratification claim that it would:

  1. Establish an international norm that would push other nuclear-capable countries like North Korea, Pakistan, and India to sign.
  2. Constrain worldwide nuclear proliferation by vastly limiting a country's ability to make nuclear advancements that only testing can ensure.
  3. Not compromise US national security because the Science Based Stockpile Stewardship Program serves as a means for maintaining current US nuclear capabilities without physical detonation.[21]

Opponents of ratification claim that:

  1. The treaty is unverifiable and that other nations could easily cheat.
  2. The ability to enforce the treaty was dubious.
  3. The U.S. nuclear stockpile would not be as safe or reliable in the absence of testing.
  4. The benefit to nuclear nonproliferation was minimal.[22]

On October 13, 1999, the United States Senate rejected ratification of the CTBT. During his 2008 presidential election campaign Barack Obama said that "As president, I will reach out to the Senate to secure the ratification of the CTBT at the earliest practical date."[23] In his speech in Prague on April 5, 2009, he announced that "[To] achieve a global ban on nuclear testing, my administration will immediately and aggressively pursue U.S. ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. After more than five decades of talks, it is time for the testing of nuclear weapons to finally be banned."[24]

An article in Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists describes how a North Korean underground nuclear test on May 25, 2009, was detected and the source located by GPS satellites. The authors suggest that the effectiveness of GPS satellites for detecting nuclear explosions enhances the ability to verify compliance with the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, giving the United States more reason to ratify it.[25]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ "Definition of key terms used in the UN Treaty Collection". United Nations. Archived from the original on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
  2. ^ "When did the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty open for signature?". CTBTO Preparatory Commission. Archived from the original on 2010-06-16. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
  3. ^ a b c "Status of signature and ratification: CTBTO Preparatory Commission". CTBTO Preparatory Commission. 2010-05-26. Retrieved 2010-05-27.
  4. ^ "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 2013-02-24.
  5. ^ a b c "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty". United Nations Treaty Collection. 2013-02-24. Retrieved 2013-02-24.
  6. ^ Floyd, Robert [@_RobFloyd] (January 26, 2022). "My heartfelt congratulations to Hon. Prime Minister Kausea Natano for his signing of #CTBT instrument of ratification. In doing so, #Tuvalu 🇹🇻 is making a concrete & key contribution to advancing the noble cause of a world free of nuclear testing for now and generations to come. https://t.co/s9C6XqkcFY" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 26 December 2022 – via Twitter.
  7. ^ CTBTO [@CTBTO] (September 22, 2022). "São Tomé and Príncipe ratifies the #CTBT - the 6th ratification during Treaty's 25th anniversary year. Another important milestone on the road to ending #nuclear testing. CTBT is now universal in Central Africa! Another strong stand on nonproliferation and disarmament by Africa. https://t.co/m4wEYTcvYc" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 26 December 2022 – via Twitter.
  8. ^ "How does a State sign the Treaty?". CTBTO Preparatory Commission. Archived from the original on 2010-06-16. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
  9. ^ "How does a State ratify the Treaty?". CTBTO Preparatory Commission. Archived from the original on 2010-06-16. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
  10. ^ "How does a State deposit its instrument of ratification?". CTBTO Preparatory Commission. Archived from the original on 2010-06-16. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
  11. ^ "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty". United Nations. Archived from the original on 2014-12-17. Retrieved 2008-07-09. (Article II, Paragraph 28)
  12. ^ "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty". United Nations. Archived from the original on 2014-12-17. Retrieved 2008-07-09. (Article XIV)
  13. ^ "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty". United Nations. Archived from the original on 2014-12-17. Retrieved 2008-08-02. (Article I, Section C)
  14. ^ "What are the Annex 2 States?". CTBTO Preparatory Commission. Archived from the original on 2010-06-16. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
  15. ^ "When will the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty enter into force?". CTBTO Preparatory Commission. Archived from the original on 2010-06-16. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
  16. ^ "RUSSIAN FEDERATION: RATIFICATION" (PDF). United Nations. 2000-06-30. Retrieved 2023-11-12.
  17. ^ "RUSSIAN FEDERATION: WITHDRAWAL OF THE INSTRUMENT OF RATIFICATION" (PDF). United Nations. 2023-11-08. Retrieved 2023-11-12.
  18. ^ Enver, Masud. "Rebuffed by U.S., India, Pakistan Storm Nuclear Club". The Wisdom Fund. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
  19. ^ "Israel confirms it'll ratify nuke test ban 'at the right time'". Times of Israel. 2016-06-20. Retrieved 2016-06-20.
  20. ^ Jonathan Medalia (2 June 2005). "Nuclear Weapons: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty". Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress (US). Archived from the original on 23 January 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
  21. ^ "Press Release: U.S. Stockpile Security and International Monitoring Capabilities Strengthened, Says New Report on Technical Issues Behind the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty". National Research Council of the National Academies. 30 March 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
  22. ^ http://adamvn1.wordpress.com/tag/ctbt/ Kathleen Bailey and Robert Barker, "Why the United States Should Unsign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and Resume Nuclear Testing," Comparative Strategy 22 (2003): 131
  23. ^ "Nuclear Testing Is an Acceptable Risk for Arms Control". Scientific American. March 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
  24. ^ "Remarks by President Barack Obama, Hradcany Square, Prague, Czech Republic". whitehouse.gov. 5 April 2005. Retrieved 21 May 2012 – via National Archives.
  25. ^ Park, J., Grejner-Brzezinska, D., von Frese, R. (18 August 2011). "A new way to detect secret nuclear tests: GPS". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 20 March 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links edit

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