Kikosi Maalum (meaning "Special Force" in Swahili), also known as the Special Battalion[1] or the grand coalition,[2] was a militia of Ugandan exiles formed in Tanzania to fight against the regime of Idi Amin. The unit was founded by and loyal to former Ugandan President Milton Obote, and served as his de facto private army. It was commanded by former army officers David Oyite-Ojok, and Tito Okello. Kikosi Maalum took part in the Uganda–Tanzania War, fighting alongside the Tanzanian military against Amin's forces. In course of this conflict, the militia was nominally unified with other Ugandan rebel groups, forming the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA) in 1979. After the fall of Amin's regime and Obote's return to power, Kikosi Maalum became the core of Uganda's new national army.
| Special Force | |
|---|---|
| Kikosi Maalum | |
| Leaders | Milton Obote David Oyite-Ojok Tito Okello |
| Dates of operation | 1971–1978 (precursor groups) 1978–1979 (officially) |
| Size | c. 600–800 (late 1978) c. 5,000 (Sept. 1979) |
| Part of | Uganda National Liberation Army (from 1979) |
| Allies |  Tanzania People's Defence Force |
| Battles and wars | Uganda–Tanzania War Ugandan Bush War (unofficially) |
History edit
Obote's rebel movement edit
Milton Obote had served as Uganda's President until he was overthrown by Idi Amin in the 1971 Ugandan coup d'état.[3] Obote consequently went into exile, and tried to regain power. Many Uganda Army soldiers attempted to flee Uganda to link up with Obote. Hundreds of these deserters, mostly Acholi and Langi, were captured by security forces loyal to Amin and massacred.[4] However, Obote still organized a guerilla force in exile.[3] One group of pro-Obote militants was provided by Tanzania with a training camp at Kingolwira, where 294 fighters had been amassed by August 1971.[5] Another, larger faction was located in Sudan. Assisted by the Sudanese Armed Forces, about 700 to 1000 Ugandan exiles were trained at Owiny Ki-Bul to launch an invasion into Uganda. However, the Sudanese government and Amin's government concluded an agreement in May 1972, whereupon Obote and his forces had to leave the country. These militants were transported from Sudan to Tanzania, but on the way many got sick and died due to unhealthy transport conditions.[5][6]
Regardless, Obote continued to organize a militant anti-Amin resistance movement in Tanzania. At the time, his armed faction was reportedly known as the "Uganda People's Liberation Front" (UPLF).[7] Having unified his militia with the guerrilla group of Yoweri Museveni, Obote dubbed the umbrella rebel force the "People's Army". The "People's Army" attempted to invade Uganda in 1972. Obote's forces were completely defeated and the unit suffered heavy losses[8] including hundreds killed.[6] The remnants of his rebel army were subsequently reorganized. By 1978, the unit had about 600[9] or 800 trained fighters,[1] most of whom were ex-soldiers who had fled Uganda due to Amin's ethnic and political purges.[2] It mostly recruited Acholi and Langi.[10]
Operations as "Kikosi Maalum" edit
When the Uganda–Tanzania War broke out in late 1978, Obote's militia acted as auxiliaries for the Tanzania People's Defence Force in combat against Amin's Uganda Army. At this point, his troops became known as "Kikosi Maalum".[11] Obote also used Kikosi Maalum and associate guerrilla groups to instigate a revolt against Amin in Uganda, but these attempts failed,[12] most notably during the Battle of Tororo.[13] While advancing into southern Uganda, Kikosi Maalum militants terrorized Muslims in the Ankole region and occasionally clashed with another rebel faction, Museveni's FRONASA, despite being officially allies.[9] The Tanzanian government subsequently organized the Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF) and its military wing, the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA), as umbrella organizations to unify all Ugandan rebel factions, including Kikosi Maalum. Regardless of this nominal unification, the UNLF was split into numerous sub-units according to the wishes and needs of the Tanzanian military. As a result, Kikosi Maalum continued to operate as separate force. Its troops aided the Tanzanians in several battles, and helped to end Amin's regime.[1] As the fighting was still ongoing, Kikosi Maalum was rapidly expanded by enlisting new members in territories conquered from Amin's forces.[9] As a result, the militia was initially the most powerful Ugandan rebel group in the UNLA, allowing Obote to gain much influence in the UNLF Military Commission.[14]
After Uganda–Tanzania War's end in 1979, a new UNLF government was formed to govern Uganda. Obote quickly began to dominate this government, and outmaneuvered his political rivals.[15] Accordingly, he tried to empower Kikosi Maalum which had become his private army. The unit had about 5,000 fighters by September 1979.[9] These troops provided the core for Uganda's new national army. After Obote officially returned to power as President following the disputed 1980 election, opposition groups launched rebellions. Kikosi Maalum veterans consequently fought for Obote's government in the Ugandan Bush War. After years of civil war, Obote was ousted in a coup d'état by Tito Okello who was in turn defeated by Yoweri Museveni in 1986. Thereafter, Kikosi Maalum veterans were retrenched from the military.[15] Kikosi Maalum veteran Justine Odong Latek later founded the Uganda People's Democratic Army.[16]
Legacy edit
In the 2010s, 100 Kikosi Maalum veterans formed the "Kikosi Maalum Cooperative Society Limited" to advocate for their interests and lobby for government recognition of their role in the overthrow of Idi Amin.[15] The lobby group was headed by Lt. Col. Bosco Omure. President Museveni and State Minister for Defence Jeje Odongo gifted USh 30 million and USh 10 million respectively to the Kikosi Maalum Cooperative Society Limited in late 2014.[17]
References edit
- ^ a b c Cooper & Fontanellaz 2015, p. 27.
- ^ a b Golooba-Mutebi 2008, p. 11.
- ^ a b Hansen 2013, p. 93.
- ^ Lowman 2020, pp. 38–40.
- ^ a b Avirgan & Honey 1983, p. 34.
- ^ a b "The rise of Kikosi Maalum". Daily Monitor. 31 May 2020. Archived from the original on May 15, 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
- ^ "The failed 1971 guerilla force attack, ex-minister Wakholi disappearance". Daily Monitor. 20 November 2015. Archived from the original on May 16, 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
- ^ Cooper & Fontanellaz 2015, pp. 15–17.
- ^ a b c d Otunnu 2017, p. 46.
- ^ Golooba-Mutebi 2008, p. 13.
- ^ Avirgan & Honey 1983, p. 75.
- ^ Cooper & Fontanellaz 2015, p. 28.
- ^ Cooper & Fontanellaz 2015, p. 62.
- ^ Otunnu 2017, p. 55.
- ^ a b c Odongo, Ronald (22 March 2014). "Former Members of Kikosi Maalum Demand Gov't Recognition". Uganda Radio Network. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
- ^ Lamwaka 2016, p. 60.
- ^ "Museveni gives sh30m to Kikosi Maalum veterans". New Vision. 22 December 2014. Archived from the original on May 15, 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
Works cited edit
- Avirgan, Tony; Honey, Martha (1983). War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House. ISBN 978-9976-1-0056-3.
- Cooper, Tom; Fontanellaz, Adrien (2015). Wars and Insurgencies of Uganda 1971–1994. Solihull: Helion & Company Limited. ISBN 978-1-910294-55-0.
- Golooba-Mutebi, Frederick (January 2008). "Collapse, War and Reconstruction in Uganda. An analytical narrative on state-making" (PDF). Makerere University Crisis States Working Papers Series (2). ISSN 1749-1800. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 1, 2023.
- Hansen, Holger Bernt (2013). "Uganda in the 1970s: a decade of paradoxes and ambiguities". Journal of Eastern African Studies. 7 (1): 83–103. doi:10.1080/17531055.2012.755315. S2CID 144443665.
- Lamwaka, Caroline (2016). The Raging Storm: A Reporter's Inside Account of the Northern Uganda War 1986-2005. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. ISBN 978-9970-25-221-3.
- Lowman, Thomas James (2020). Beyond Idi Amin: Causes and Drivers of Political Violence in Uganda, 1971-1979 (PDF) (PhD thesis). Durham University. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
- Otunnu, Ogenga (2016). Crisis of Legitimacy and Political Violence in Uganda, 1890 to 1979. Chicago: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-319-33155-3.
- Otunnu, Ogenga (2017). Crisis of Legitimacy and Political Violence in Uganda, 1979 to 2016. Chicago: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-319-33155-3.