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Household

This article is about an economic, social, or socioeconomic grouping. For the article on the author, see Geoffrey Household.
Aime Pez Familienidylle 1839

A household consists of one or more people who live in the same dwelling and share meals. It may also consist of a single family or some other grouping of people.[1] A single dwelling is considered to contain multiple households if either meals or living spaces are not shared. The household is the basic unit of analysis in many social, microeconomic and government models[2], and is important to the fields of economics and inheritance.[3]

Household models include the family, varieties of blended families, share housing, group homes, boarding houses, houses in multiple occupation (UK), and a single room occupancy (US). In feudal societies, the royal household and medieval households of the wealthy also included servants and other retainers.

Contents

Government definitionsEdit

For statistical purposes in the United Kingdom, a household is defined as "one person or a group of people who have the accommodation as their only or main residence and for a group, either share at least one meal a day or share the living accommodation, that is, a living room or sitting room".[4]

The introduction of legislation to control Houses of Multiple Occupation in the UK Housing Act (2004)[5] required a tighter definition of a single household and this is contained in the above Act. Please see especially section 258 on p. 201 in the linked document. Briefly: people can be considered together as a single household if they are related: "whole-blood" or "half-blood", foster, step-parent/child, in-laws (and equivalent for unmarried couples), a married couple or unmarried but "living as..." (same-sex or different-sex couples).[6]

The United States Census definition similarly turns on "separate living quarters", i.e. "those in which the occupants live and eat separately from any other persons in the building."[7] A householder in the U.S. census is the "person (or one of the people) in whose name the housing unit is owned or rented (maintained);" if no person qualifies, any adult resident of a housing unit is considered a householder. The U.S. government formerly used the terms "head of the household" and "head of the family" to describe householders; beginning in 1980, these terms were officially dropped from the census and replaced with "householder".[8]

The official definition of a household says that it:[9]

...includes all the persons who occupy a housing unit. A housing unit is a house, an apartment, a mobile home, a group of rooms, or a single room that is occupied (or if vacant, is intended for occupancy) as separate living quarters. Separate living quarters are those in which the occupants live and eat separately from any other persons in the building and which have direct access from the outside of the building or through a common hall. The occupants may be a single family, one person living alone, two or more families living together, or any other group of related or unrelated persons who share living arrangements. (People not living in households are classified as living in group quarters.)

According to Statistics Canada, since July 15, 1998, "a household is generally defined as being composed of a person or group of persons who co-reside in, or occupy, a dwelling."[10]

Economic theoriesEdit

Most economic theories assume there is only one income stream to a household[citation needed]. This a useful simplification for modeling, but does not necessarily reflect reality. Many households now include multiple income-earning members.

Most economic models do not address whether the members of a household are a family in the traditional sense. Government and policy discussions often treat the terms household and family as synonymous,[citation needed] especially in western societies where the nuclear family has become the most common family structure.[dubious – discuss] In reality, there is not always a one-to-one relationship between households and families.

SocialEdit

In social work, the household is defined similarly as above: a residential grouping in which housework is divided and performed by householders. Care may be delivered by one householder to another, depending upon their respective needs, abilities, and perhaps disabilities. Different household compositions may lead to differential life and health expectations and outcomes for household members.[11][12] Eligibility for certain community services and welfare benefits may depend upon a household's composition.[13]

In sociology, "household work strategy", a term coined by Ray Pahl,[14][15] is the division of labour between members of a household, whether implicit or as the result of explicit decision–making, with the alternatives weighed up in a simplified type of cost-benefit analysis. It is a plan for the relative deployment of household members' times between the three domains of employment: i) in the market economy, including home-based self-employment second jobs, in order to obtain money to buy goods and services in the market; ii) domestic production work, such as cultivating a vegetable patch or raising chickens, purely to supply food to the household; and iii) domestic consumption work to provide goods and services directly within the household, such as cooking meals, child–care, household repairs, or the manufacture of clothes and gifts.

Household work strategies may vary over the life-cycle, as household members age, or with the economic environment; they may be imposed by one person or be decided collectively.[16]

Feminism examines the ways that gender roles affect the division of labour within households. Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild in The Second Shift and The Time Bind presents evidence that in two-career couples, men and women, spend on average about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework.[17][18] Cathy Young, another feminist writer, responds to Hochschild's assertions by arguing that in some cases, women may prevent the equal participation of men in housework and parenting.[19]

Household modelsEdit

Household models in anglophone culture include the family and varieties of blended families, share housing, and group homes for people with support needs. Other models of living situations which may meet definitions of a household include boarding houses, a house in multiple occupation (UK), and a single room occupancy (US).

HistoryEdit

In feudal or aristocratic societies, a household may include servants or retainers, whether or not they are named so explicitly. Their roles may blur the line between a family member and an employee. In such cases, they ultimately derive their income from the household's principal income.

Historical statistics on housingEdit

Percentage of dwellings with a bathroom in various European countries:[20]

Country 1960 1970 1980
  Belgium 23.6% 49.1% 73.9%
  Denmark 39.4% 73.1% 85.4%
  France 28.0% 48.9% 85.2%
  Germany 51.9% 71.5% 92.3%
  Greece 10.4% - 69.3%
  Ireland 33.0% 55.3% 82.0%
  Italy 10.7% 64.5% 86.4%
  Luxembourg 45.7% 69.4% 86.2%
  Netherlands 30.3% 75.5% 95.9%
  Portugal 18.6% - 58%
  Spain 24.0% 77.8% 85.3%
  United Kingdom 78.3% 90.9% 98.0%

According to statistics from Eurostat, the percentage of households in various European countries with access to an indoor WC, bath/ shower, and hot running water on the premises in 1988 were:[21]

Country Indoor WC Bath/shower Hot running water
  Belgium 94% 92% 87%
  Denmark 97% 94% N/A
  France 94% 93% 95%
  Germany 99% 97% 98%
  Greece 85% 85% 84%
  Ireland 94% 92% 91%
  Italy 99% 95% 93%
  Luxembourg 99% 97% 97%
  Netherlands N/A 99% 100%
  Portugal 80% N/A N/A
  Spain 97% 96% N/A
  UK 99% 100% N/A

Percentage of dwellings in various European countries with certain amenities, according to 1981–82 censuses:[20]

Country Bathroom or shower on the premises Internal WC Central heating on the premises
  Belgium 73.9% 79.0% -
  Denmark 85.1% 95.8% 54.6%
  France 85.2% 85.4% 67.6%
  Germany 92.3% 96.0% 70.0%
  Greece 69.3% 70.9% -
  Ireland 82.0% 84.5% 39.2%
  Italy 86.4% 87.7% 56.5%
  Luxembourg 86.2% 97.3% 73.9%
  Netherlands 95.9% - 66.1%
  Portugal 58.0% 58.7% -
  Spain 85.3% - 22.5%
  United Kingdom 98.0% 97.3% -

According to statistics from the World Bank and the Economic Commission for Europe (UN), the average usable floor space of dwellings in existence in 1976 in various countries were:[22]

Country m2
  Austria 86
  Belgium 97
  Bulgaria 63
  Canada 89
  Czechoslovakia 69
  Denmark 122
  Finland 71
  France 82
  East Germany 60
  West Germany 95
  Greece 80
  Hungary 65
  Ireland 88
  Luxembourg 107
  Netherlands 71
  Norway 89
  Poland 58
  Portugal 104
  Romania 54
  Soviet Union 49
  Spain 82
  Sweden 109
   Switzerland 98
  United Kingdom 70
  United States 120
  Yugoslavia 65

Average useful floor space (m2) per dwelling in selected European countries (Source: European Commission, 1994):[23]

Country m2
  Austria 85.3
  Belgium 86.3
  Denmark 107.0
  Finland 74.8
  France 85.4
  East Germany 64.4
  West Germany 86.7
  Greece 79.6
  Ireland 88.0
  Italy 92.3
  Luxembourg 107.0
  Netherlands 98.6
  Spain 86.6
  Sweden 92.0
  United Kingdom 79.7

Percentage of households without modern amenities (Source: Living Conditions in OECD Countries, 1986)[24]

Note: The Japanese and European data is from a 1980 census.

Percentage of households lacking an indoor flush toilet:

Country No indoor flush toilet
  Belgium 19%
  France 17%
  West Germany 7%
  Greece 29%
  Ireland 22%
  Italy 11%
  Japan 54%
  Norway 17%
  Portugal 43%
  Spain 12%
  United Kingdom 6%

Percentage of households lacking a fixed shower or bath:

Country No fixed shower or bath
  Belgium 24%
  France 17%
  West Germany 11%
  Italy 11%
  Japan 17%
  Norway 18%
  Spain 39%
  United Kingdom 4%

Floor space in selected countries (1992–1993)[25]

Country Year m2
  Australia 1993 191.0
  United States 1992 153.2
  South Korea 1993 119.3
  United Kingdom 1992 95.0
  Germany 1993 90.8
  Japan 1993 88.6

Basic amenities in British and German housing:[26]

Households with an exclusive use of an inside WC:

Country 1960/61 1970/71 1978/79
  United Kingdom 87% 88% 95%
  Germany 64% 85% 92.5%

Households with a bath or shower:

Country 1960/61 1970/71 1978/79
  United Kingdom 72% 91% 94.3%
  Germany 51% 82% 89.1%


Percentage of principle residences in France lacking certain amenities:[22]
Year No running water in dwelling No W.C. in dwelling No bath or shower in dwelling No central heating
1962 21.6% 59.5% 71.1% 80.7%
1968 9.2% 45.2% 52.5% 65.1%
1975 2.8% 26.2% 29.8% 46.9%
1978 1.3% 20.9% 22.9% 39.7%

Percentage of households with central heating:

Country 1970 1978
  Great Britain 34% 53%
  Germany 44% 64%

Percentage of dwellings in the United States with selected amenities: (1970):[27]

Household Percentage
Bath or shower 95%
Flush toilet 96%

Basic amenities in the housing stock of East Germany:[22]

Amenity 1961 1971 1979
Running water 66% 82.2% 89%
Interior W.C. 33% 41.8% 50%
Bath or shower 22.4% 38.7% 50%
Central heating 2.5% 10.6% 22%


Percentage of dwellings in various European countries equipped with basic facilities (1970–71):[28]
Country Piped water Lavatory Fixed bath or shower
  Austria 84.2% 69.8% 52.9%
  Belgium 88.0% 50.4% 47.8%
  Czechoslovakia 75.3% 49.0% 58.6%
  Denmark 98.7% 90.3% 76.5%
  Finland 72.0% 61.4% -
  Greece 64.9% 41.2% 35.6%
  Hungary 36.1% 27.2% 31.7%
  Ireland 78.2% 69.2% 55.4%
  Italy 86.1% 79.0% 64.5%
  Netherlands - 80.8% 81.4%
  Norway 97.5% 69.0% 66.1%
  Portugal 47.8% 33.7% 32.6%
  Spain 70.9% 70.9% 46.4%
  Sweden 97.4% 90.1% 78.3%
   Switzerland - 93.3% 80.9%
  United Kingdom - 86.3% 90.7%
  Yugoslavia 33.6% 26.2% 24.6%


Housing Conditions in Great Britain: percentage of all households possessing and lacking certain amenities:[29]

Percentage of all households entirely without certain amenities (Great Britain)
Year Fixed bath Internal or external WC Hot water tap Internal WC
1951 37.6% 7.7% - -
1961 22.4% 6.5% 21.8% -
1966 15.4% 1.7% 12.5% 18.3%
1971 9.1% 1.1% 6.5% 11.5%


Percentage of all households sharing certain amenities (Great Britain)
Year Fixed bath Internal or external WC Hot water tap Internal WC
1951 7.5% 14.9% - -
1961 4.4% 6.7% 1.8% -
1966 4.1% 6.4% 2.0% 4.4%
1971 3.2% 4.1% 1.9% 3.1%
Percentage of households in selected countries possessing certain durable goods (1964-1971):[30]
Country Year Washing machine Refrigerator Television Telephone
  Northern Ireland 1971 45.4% 40.1% 87.5% 27.0%
  Scotland 1971 65.0% 53.2% 92.1% 36.1%
  United Kingdom 1964 53.0% 34.0% 80.0% 2.2%
  United Kingdom 1971 64.3% 68.8% 91.4% 37.8%
  United States 1965 87.4% 99.5% 97.1% 85.0%
  United States 1970 92.1% 99.85 98.7% 92.0%


Percentage of households in the EEC possessing certain durable goods (Manual workers)(1963–1964):[30]
Country Washing machine Refrigerator Television Telephone
  Belgium 74.7% 24.9% 47.6% 8.2%
  France 39.6% 47.0% 34.4% 1.4%
  West Germany 66.2% 62.1% 51.3% 1.8%
  Italy 13.6% 50.2% 47.9% 20.0%
  Luxembourg 82.3% 64.7% 27.9% 23.0%
  Netherlands 80.4% 25.5% 58.0% 9.4%
Percentage of households in the EEC possessing certain durable goods (White collar workers)(1963–1964):[30]
Country Washing machine Refrigerator Television Telephone
  Belgium 68.5% 57.3% 48.3% 40.0%
  France 48.2% 71.3% 43.3% 15.2%
  West Germany 62.2% 79.1% 51.8% 19.6%
  Italy 38.3% 81.9% 79.3% 57.9%
  Luxembourg 82.3% 79.2% 25.2% 67.3%
  Netherlands 73.9% 51.6% 56.2% 57.4%


Percentage of dwellings in selected countries with certain amenities (1960–71):[30]
Country Year Piped water supply (any type) Inside piped water supply Toilet (any type) Flush toilet Fixed Bath or Shower
  Austria 1961 100.0% 63.6% - - 29.6%
1970 - 85.3% 69.7% - 54.5%
  Belgium 1961 76.9% - 99.9% 47.6% 24.3%
  Bulgaria 1965 28.5% 28.2% 100.0% 11.8% 8.7%
  Canada 1961 89.1% - - 85.2% 80.3%
1967 - 95.2% 93.5% 92.5% 89.8%
1971 - - - 95.4% 93.4%
  Czechoslovakia 1961 60.5% 49.1% - 39.5% 33.3%
  Denmark 1960 - 92.9% 100.0% 83.6% 48.3%
1965 96.7% 96.7% 100.0% 90.9% 63.4%
  England+  Wales 1961 - 98.7% 93.4% - 78.7%
1966 - - - 98.2% 85.1%
  Finland 1960 47.1% 47.1% - 35.4% 14.6%
  France 1962 - 77.5% 43.1% 39.3% 28.0%
1968 92.8% 91.5% 56.2% 53.2% 48.9%
  East Germany 1961 - 65.7% 33.7% - 22.1%
  West Germany 1965 - 98.2% - 83.3% 64.3%
1968 99.0% - - 86.5% 66.8%
  Hungary 1960 - - 100.0% 22.5% -
1963 32.5% 25.9% - - 18.5%
1970 58.6% 36.4% 100.0% 32.7% 32.2%
  Ireland 1961 57.2% 51.0% 64.9% 53.5% 33.2%
  Italy 1961 71.6% 62.3% 89.5% - 28.9%
  Luxembourg 1960 98.8% - 100.0% 81.6% 45.7%
  Netherlands 1956 89.6% - 99.9% 67.5% 26.8%
  New Zealand 1960 - 90.0% - - -
1961 99.6% 87.8% - 88.5% -
1966 99.7% 90.3% - 94.0% 98.1%
  Norway 1960 94.0% 92.8% 100.0% 57.9% 45.2%
  Poland 1960 39.1% 29.9% 26.9% 18.9% 13.9%
1966 - 46.8% - 33.3% -
  Romania 1966 48.4% 12.3% 100.0% 12.2% 9.6%
  Scotland 1961 - 94.0% - 92.8% 69.9%
1966 - - - 95.7% 77.4%
  Sweden 1960 - 90.0% - 76.2% 61.0%
1965 95.2% 94.3% 99.7% 85.3% 72.9%
   Switzerland 1960 - 96.1% 99.7% - 68.8%
  United States 1960 94.0% 92.9% - 89.7% 88.1%
  Yugoslavia (urban) 1961 - 42.4% 34.5% - 22.5%
Percentage of households in selected European countries owning at least one car (1978):[31]
Country Own at least one car
  Belgium 69.9%
  Denmark 57.0%
  France 66.9%
  West Germany 62.6%
  Ireland 65.1%
  Italy 69.1%
  Netherlands 67.2%
  United Kingdom 54.4%
Distributions of the three main kinds of housing tenure in various societies(1980-1990):[32]
Country Year Social rented Private rented Owner-occupied
  Australia 1988 5% 25% 70%
  Belgium 1986 6% 30% 62%
  Denmark 1990 21% 21% 58%
  France 1990 17% 30% 53%
  Germany 1990 25% 38% 37%
  Ireland 1990 14% 9% 78%
  Italy 1990 5% 24% 64%
  Netherlands 1988 43% 13% 44%
  Spain 1989 1% 11% 88%
  United Kingdom 1990 27% 7% 66%
  United States 1980 2% 32% 66%


Percentage of wage-earners’ households in various European Common Market countries owning a garden (1963–64):[33]
Country Own a garden
  Belgium 58%
  France 47%
  Italy 17%
  Netherlands 21%
  Germany 45%
  Luxembourg 81%


Percentage of households owning certain durable goods in 1962:[34]
Country Television Vacuum cleaner Washing machine Refrigerator Car
  France 25% 32% 31% 37% 33%
  Great Britain 78% 71% 43% 22% 30%
  United States 87% 75% 95% 98% 75%


Historical housing conditions in BelgiumEdit

A survey carried out by the National Housing Institute in 1961 to 1962 estimated that out of all the dwellings in Belgium 13.8% were unfit and incapable of improvement. 19.5% of dwellings, although unfit, showed potential for improvement, and 54% were considered to be suitable (without alteration or improvement) for modern living standards. 74% of dwellings lacked a shower or bath, 19% had inadequate arrangements for sewage disposal, 3.6% lacked a proper supply of drinking water, and only 36.8% had an internal water closet.[35] According to an earlier study from 1964, 13% of total housing in Belgium was considered to be made up of slums.[36]

Postwar housing conditions in FranceEdit

Between 1954 and 1973, the proportion of homes with shower or bath increased from 10% to 65%. During that same period, the percentage of homes without flushing lavatories fell from 73% to 30% and those without running water from 42% to 3.4%. A 1948 law permitted gradual long-term rent rises for existing flats, on the condition that part of the money was spent on repairs. According to John Ardagh, the law, “vigorously applied, was partly successful in its twofold aim: to encourage both repairs and new building.”[37]

Postwar housing conditions in the United KingdomEdit

During the postwar period, a very high proportion of British housing came in the form of single-family housing. In 1961, 78% of all British housing consisted of single-family homes, compared to 56% in the Netherlands, 49% in West Germany, and 32% in France.[38] In terms of housing conditions, in 1964 in England and Wales, 6.6% of accommodation units consisted of 2 rooms or less, 5.8% had 7 rooms or more, 15.2% had 6 rooms, 35.1% had 5 rooms, 26.3% had 4 rooms, and 11.1% had 3 rooms. These figures included kitchens only where they were used for eating meals. In terms of the number of bedrooms available in accommodation units in 1964, 50% had 3 bedrooms, 1.9% had 5 or more bedrooms, 6.2% had 4 bedrooms, 10.5% had 1 or no bedrooms, and 31.3% had 2 bedrooms. A 1960 Social Survey estimated that 0.6% of households in England and Wales fell below the statutory overcrowding standard, and 0.5% in 1964. In 1964 the number of persons per room where households contained at least one person per room stood at 6.9% of all households, while in 1960 some 11% of all households fell below the bedroom standard, with 1.75% having 2 or more bedrooms less than the standard and 9.25% having one bedroom less than the standard. By 1964, however, this had declined slightly to 9.4% of households falling below this standard, with 8.1% having one bedroom less than the standard and 1.3% having 2 bedrooms or more less than the standard. According to local authority returns in 1965, 5% of the total housing stock in England and Wales was unfit.[39]

Housing conditions in Canada and the United States of AmericaEdit

Various improvements took place in housing condition in both Canada and the USA in the years following the end of the Second World War. In the USA, 35.4% of all dwellings in 1950 did not have complete plumbing facilities, a proportion that fell to 16.8% in 1960 and to 8.4% in 1968. In Canada, from 1951 to 1971, the proportion of dwellings with a bath or shower went up from 60.8% to 93.4% and those with piped hot and cold water from 56.9% to 93.5%.[30] In the United States, from 1950 to 1974, the percentage of housing without full plumbing fell from 34% to 3%, while during that same period the percentage of the total housing stock estimated to be dilapidated fell from 9% to less than 4%.[40]

See alsoEdit

Other sourcesEdit

  • The Economist Book Of Vital World Statistics: A Complete Guide To The World In Figures, Introduction by Sir Claus Moser KCB CBE, The Economist Books Ltd., Fourth reprint, paperback edition, October 1992 (contains a section entitled “Consumer Durables,” with estimates of household ownership of a wide range of consumer durables in OECD countries and various Eastern European countries)

ReferencesEdit

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  36. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-10-29. Retrieved 2016-10-29.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
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  38. ^ Kertzer, D.I.; Barbagli, M. (2003). Family Life in the Twentieth Century. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300094947. Archived from the original on 2017-01-08. Retrieved 2017-01-08.
  39. ^ Socially Deprived Families in Britain edited by Robert Holman, reprinted edition 1971, first published in 1970
  40. ^ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ExTFM-jr0NEC&pg=PA298&dq=American+Standards+of+Living:+1918-1988+housing+quality&hl=en&sa=X&ei=p_FqVa2CMsatsgHV44PoCQ&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=American%20Standards%20of%20Living%3A%201918-1988%20housing%20quality&f=false Archived 2016-04-17 at the Wayback Machine

External linksEdit

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