The Federation of Central America (Spanish: Federación de Centro América)[1] was a short-lived federal republic that existed in Central America between 1921 and 1922. The federation consisted of the Central American nations of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. It was the fourth unification between Central American states, after the Federal Republic of Central America in 1821, the Federation of Central America in October–November 1852,[2] and the Greater Republic of Central America in 1896.
Federation of Central America Federación de Centro América | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1921–1922 | |||||||||||||||||
.png) El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras, the three members of the federation | |||||||||||||||||
| Location | Central America | ||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Tegucigalpa | ||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Spanish | ||||||||||||||||
| Demonym(s) | Central American | ||||||||||||||||
| Government | Federal republic | ||||||||||||||||
| Senate | |||||||||||||||||
| Chamber of Deputies | |||||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||||
• Pact of Union | 19 January 1921 | ||||||||||||||||
• Established | 6 April 1921 | ||||||||||||||||
• Constitution | 9 September 1821 | ||||||||||||||||
• Guatemalan coup | 5 December 1921 | ||||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1922 | ||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||
| Today part of | El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras | ||||||||||||||||
Delegations from Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua drafted the Pact of Union of Central America in January 1921, and the pact was signed by the former four countries; Nicaragua refused to sign as it conflicted with the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty it had with the United States. By 6 April 1921, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras had ratified the pact, officially establishing the Federation of Central America. Costa Rica rejected the pact in June 1921 and never joined the federation. The federation's constitution was ratified on 9 September 1921. The federation dissolved in 1922 after the Guatemalan government was overthrown.
Background
editOn 15 September 1821, Central America declared its independence from the Spanish Empire, and in 1823, it established the Federal Republic of Central America. The federal republic consisted of five members: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.[3] The federal republic collapsed between 1838 and 1841 when all its members declared their independence.[4][5] Since the collapse of the Federal Republic of Central America, its former members had attempted to restore it on several occasions including during the 19th century, but all attempts eventually failed.[6][7]
History
editEstablishment
editOn 4 December 1920, delegations from Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua met in San José to negotiation the reestablishment of a united Central American state.[8][a] The negotiations were held as the region's government wanted to restore the Federal Republic of Central America as the centenary of Central American independence was approaching on 15 September 1921.[9] After five meetings, the delegations drafted the Pact of Union of Central America outlining the framework of a Central American state on 17 January 1921,[8] and on 19 January, the delegations of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras signed a pact.[10][11] The pact presented the Federation of Central America as the successor of the Federal Republic of Central America.[1]
Nicaragua did not sign the pact as its government was concerned that joining the federation would violate the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty that Nicaragua had with the United States.[12] The pact's signatories, especially Costa Rica,[b] encouraged the Nicaraguan government to sign the pact and break the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty to no avail.[14] Article XIX of the pact allowed Nicaragua to join the federation whenever it wished.[15] El Salvador ratified the pact on 23 January 1921, followed by Honduras on 25 January and Guatemala on 6 April; the pact stipulated that it would go into full effect once at least three members had ratified it, marking 6 April 1921 as the foundation of the Federation of Central America.[16] Although Costa Rica signed the pact, the Constitutional Congress of Costa Rica rejected it on 21 June 1921 due to the Nicaraguan government's refusal to join the federation.[17]
The pact established the National Constituent Assembly to draft the country's constitution. The assembly consisted of fourteen Salvadorans, fifteen Guatemalans, and fifteen Hondurans.[18][19] The assembly proclaimed the constitution on 9 September 1921 and it was ratified by El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras on 9 September 1921.[20][21]
Dissolution
editOn 5 December 1921, the Guatemalan government of President Carlos Herrera was overthrown by the Armed Forces of Guatemala and the United Fruit Company.[22][23] Herrera's successor, General José María Orellana declared Guatemala's withdrawal from the Federation of Central America.[24][25] The federation's legislature met on 4 January 1922 in Tegucigalpa (the federation's capital), and despite the coup in Guatemala, the Guatemalan deputies assumed office.[26] Later that month, a member of the Central American legislature told Edward Perry, a contributor to The Hispanic American Historical Review, that the coup had "overturned" the federation's politics and that "the legal functioning of the new political organism is impossible" with the rise of an unelected government in Guatemala.[23]
The Federation of Central America is the most recent attempt to unite Central America under a single country.[27]
Government and politics
editThe constitution of the Federation of Central America declared the country to be "perpetual and indissoluble" and designated El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras as states within the republic.[28] A federal district was also planned to be established around the country's capital city in Tegucigalpa.[18][24] It also declared the government to be "republican, popular, and responsible". The federal government consisted of legislative, executive, and judicial branches.[29]
Federal government
edit
The federation's bicameral legislature composed of the Senate (upper house) and the Chamber of Deputies (lower house). The Senate consisted of three senators and three substitute senators from each state, while the Chamber of Deputies consisted of one deputy and one substitute deputy representing 100,000 people each. Both chambers of the legislature required three-fourths of its members to be present to reach quorum. Elections for the legislature and executive were to be held through popular vote. Senators were elected for six-year terms, and one-third of the Senate was elected each election cycle. There were no legislative term-limits.[29]
The executive branch was led by a federal council consisting of one delegate and one substitute delegate from each state. Delegates of the federal council were elected for five-year terms. The council elected a president and vice president from its members for one year terms; they were not allowed to be re-elected consecutively. The president of the council also served as the president of the federation.[30][31] The Supreme Court consisted of seven justices elected by the Senate.[32]
Citizenship
editThe constitution granted citizenship to anyone born within the federation, with the exception of the children of diplomats, who meet one of three requirements: were at least 21 years old, were at least 18 years old and were married, or were literate. The constitution further stipulated that by 1928, literacy would become a requirement for citizens to be eligible to vote in state and federal elections. Women were granted suffrage if they married or widowed, literate, and at least 21 years old; 25 years old and had received a primary educated; or possessed a certain amount of wealth. Women were allowed to hold public office as long as they were not elected or if the office held no jurisdiction.[33]
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ The delegates that negotiated the Pact of Union of Central America were the Costa Ricans Alejandro Alvarado Quirós and Cleto González Víquez, Salvadorans Reyes Arrieta Rossi and Miguel Tomás Medina, Guatemalans Salvador Falla and Carlos Salazar, Hondurans Alberto Uclés and Mariano Vásquez, and Nicaraguans Manuel Pasos Arana and Ramón Castillo.[8]
- ^ At the time, the Costa Rican government viewed the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty between Nicaragua and the United States as a violation of its own sovereign rights as the treaty forbade Nicaragua from granting concessions to build a canal in the San Juan River that marks much of the Costa Rica–Nicaragua border; Costa Rica was not consulted regarding this aspect of the treaty.[13]
References
editCitations
edit- ^ a b Tipografía Nacional 1921, p. 53.
- ^ Integración Centroamericana (PDF) (Report). Universidad Estatal a Distancia. p. 16. Retrieved 8 May 2025.
- ^ Sanz y Tovar 1950, pp. 119 & 121.
- ^ Sanz y Tovar 1950, pp. 123–124.
- ^ Thomas 1952, p. 862.
- ^ Thomas 1952, pp. 863–868.
- ^ Bernal Ramírez & Quijano de Batres 2009, p. 77.
- ^ a b c Tipografía Nacional 1921, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Salisbury 1977, p. 592.
- ^ Perry 1922, pp. 30 & 35.
- ^ Gallardo 1959, p. 173.
- ^ Perry 1922, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Salisbury 1977, p. 591.
- ^ Salisbury 1977, pp. 591–593.
- ^ Tipografía Nacional 1921, p. 60.
- ^ Perry 1922, p. 35.
- ^ Salisbury 1977, p. 595.
- ^ a b Tipografía Nacional 1921, p. 54.
- ^ Perry 1922, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Bardales Ponce & Lemus Rivas 2021, p. 28.
- ^ Perry 1922, p. 39.
- ^ Bardales Ponce & Lemus Rivas 2021, p. 29.
- ^ a b Perry 1922, p. 48.
- ^ a b Sanz y Tovar 1950, p. 129.
- ^ Thomas 1952, p. 891.
- ^ Perry 1922, pp. 47–48.
- ^ Bernal Ramírez & Quijano de Batres 2009, p. 74.
- ^ Perry 1922, p. 40.
- ^ a b Perry 1922, p. 46.
- ^ Tipografía Nacional 1921, p. 55.
- ^ Perry 1922, pp. 46–47.
- ^ Perry 1922, p. 47.
- ^ Perry 1922, pp. 40–41.
Bibliography
editBooks
edit- Bernal Ramírez, Luis Guillermo & Quijano de Batres, Ana Elia, eds. (2009). Historia 2 El Salvador [History 2 El Salvador] (PDF). Historia El Salvador (in Spanish). El Salvador: Ministry of Education. ISBN 9789992363683. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2025.
- Protocolo de la Conferencia de Plenipotenciarios Centroamericanos Reunida en San José de Costa Rica el 4 de Diciembre de 1920 [Protocol of the Conference of Central American Plenipotentiaries in San José of Costa Rica on 4 December 1920] (in Spanish). Vol. 42. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Tipografía Nacional. 1921. LCCN 33034532. OCLC 1051757299. Retrieved 25 March 2025.
Journals
edit- Bardales Ponce, Ariel & Lemus Rivas, Marvin (2021). "Crónicas del Intento Unionista Federal de Centroamérica (1921)" [Chronicles of the Federal Unionist Attempt of Central America (1921)]. Journals of the History of Honduras (in Spanish). 1 (1). National Autonomous University of Honduras: 26–37. Retrieved 25 March 2025.
- Gallardo, Ricardo (1959). "In Memoriam: José Gustavo Guerrero San Salvador (El Salvador), 26 de Junio de 1876 † Niza (Francia), 25 de Octubre de 1958" [In Memoriam: José Gustavo Guerrero San Salvador (El Salvador), 26 June 1876 † Nice (France), 25 October 1958]. Spanish Journal of International Law (in Spanish). 12 (1/2). Spanish Association of Professors of International Law and International Relations: 159–180. ISSN 0034-9380. JSTOR 44293430. OCLC 9978048539.
- Perry, Edward (February 1922). "Central American Union". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 5 (1). Duke University Press: 30–51. doi:10.2307/2505979. ISSN 0018-2168. JSTOR 2505979. OCLC 5791727517.
- Sanz y Tovar, Gaspar (December 1950). "La Federación Centroamericana" [The Central American Federation] (PDF). Central of Political and Constitutional Studies (in Spanish). Managua, Nicaragua: Government of Spain: 119–133. Retrieved 25 March 2025.
- Salisbury, Richard V. (November 1977). "The Anti-Imperialist Career of Alejandro Alvarado Quirós". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 57 (4). Duke University Press: 587–612. doi:10.2307/2513480. ISSN 0018-2168. JSTOR 2513480. OCLC 5548616614.
- Thomas, Joaquin E. (1952). "La Unión Centroamericana en los Tratados y Convenios Diplomáticos (Desde la Federación de 1824 a la Federación de 1921)" [The Central American Union in the Treaties and Diplomatic Conventions (From the Federation of 1824 to the Federation of 1921)]. Spanish Journal of International Law (in Spanish). 5 (3). Spanish Association of Professors of International Law and International Relations: 857–891. ISSN 0034-9380. JSTOR 44293021. OCLC 9978049869.
