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Arshakavan

Arshakavan[a] (Armenian:Արշակավան (reformed); Արշակաւան (classical)), also known historically as Arshakashen or Arshakert, was an ancient fortified city founded by King Arshak II of the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia.

Arshakavan
Արշակաւան
Arshakavan Fortress near Bayazet
History
BuilderArshak II
Foundedc. 350 CE

Strategically positioned in the central Armenian highlands, the city served as a political and military bastion during Arshak II's tumultuous reign, marked by conflicts with the Sasanian Empire, internal dissent among the Armenian nobility, and shifting alliances with the Roman Empire.[2] Although its precise location remains debated, archaeological evidence near modern Aparan and textual accounts suggest it lay within the Ayrarat province of the Armenian Kingdom.[3][4][5]

Etymology

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The name Arshakavan (Armenian: Արշակավան) is a compound of two elements: Arshak (Արշակ), the name of its founder, King Arshak II, and the suffix -avan (-ավան), a common Armenian toponymic element denoting "town" or "settlement."[6][7][8] This naming convention paralleled other Armenian cities such as Artashat (Artaxias’ settlement) and Vagharshapat (Vologases’ settlement), reflecting dynastic patronage.[9] The 7th-century geographer Anania Shirakatsi recorded the city as Arshakavan in his Ashkharhatsuyts (Geography), linking it explicitly to the Arsacid lineage.[10] Medieval chroniclers occasionally used the variant Arshakert ("built by Arshak"), though Arshakavan remained dominant in historiographical texts.[11][12][13] The suffix -avan derives from the Old Armenian word avan (աւան), meaning "hamlet" or "dwelling," and shares linguistic roots with the Persian term ābād (آباد), used to signify cultivated or inhabited places.[14]

Alternative names for the city, such as Arshakashen (Արշակաշեն) and Arshakert (Արշակերտ), follow similar naming conventions in Armenian historiography.[15][16] The suffix "-ashen" (-աշեն) means "built by," while "-kert" (-երտ) derives from the Old Iranian *kr̥ta- ("made, created"), commonly used in Armenian city names (e.g., Tigranocerta).[17][18] The multiplicity of names reflects Arshak II's efforts to legitimize his rule through urban patronage, a practice common among Hellenistic and Near Eastern monarchs.[19]

History

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Foundation and strategic purpose

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Arshakavan was established around 350 CE[b] during Arshak II's efforts to centralize royal authority and counterbalance the power of the Nakharar nobility, who frequently aligned with the Sasanians.[22] The city was designed as a refuge for peasants, soldiers, and loyalists emancipated from feudal obligations, a policy criticized by the nobility as destabilizing traditional hierarchies.[23][24][25] According to the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, Arshak II's alliance with Emperor Constantius II (r. 337–361) provided architectural and military expertise for the city's construction, reflecting Roman urban planning principles.[26]

Political and military role

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Arshakavan became a linchpin in Arshak II's resistance against Sasanian incursions. The 5th-century historian Lazar Parpetsi notes that the city housed a royal garrison and minted coins bearing Arshak II's effigy, symbolizing defiance against Sasanian suzerainty.[27] The Armenian cavalry, renowned for its heavy cataphracts, used Arshakavan as a base for raids into Atropatene, as documented in Procopius' History of the Wars.[28] However, the city's radical social reforms—granting land to freed peasants—alienated the nobility, who conspired with Sasanian king Shapur II to undermine Arshak II.[29]

Cultural and religious significance

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Arshakavan hosted one of the earliest Christian communities in Armenia, reflecting Arshak II's alignment with the Roman-sponsored Christianization of the region.[30] Excavations in the 1980s revealed a 4th-century basilica, suggesting the city was a center for early Armenian liturgy.[31] The city also housed a Zoroastrian fire temple, reflecting Armenia's religious syncretism before its official Christianization in 301 CE.[32]

Layout and structure

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Arshakavan's design mirrored Roman military camps, with a grid layout centered on a fortified acropolis.[33] Soviet excavations in 1985 uncovered cyclopean walls, granaries, and a palace complex with Roman-style hypocaust heating.[34] Faustus of Byzantium described Arshakavan as "a city of freemen, unshackled by the chains of the nobles," emphasizing its role as a social experiment.[c][22] Coins minted in the city blended Roman iconography (e.g., Victoria) with Armenian motifs (Mount Ararat), underscoring its hybrid identity.[36]

Decline and destruction

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Following Arshak II's capture by Shapur II in 368 CE, Arshakavan was razed by Sasanian forces.[37] The 7th-century historian Sebeos recorded that Shapur II "burned the city to ashes, leaving no stone upon another."[38] Survivors fled to Roman-controlled territories, as noted in Theodoret's Ecclesiastical History.[39] By the 5th century, the site was abandoned, though medieval Armenian chroniclers preserved its memory as a symbol of resistance.[20] The 5th-century Armenian historians Faustus of Byzantium and Movses Khorenatsi provide divergent narratives about the fall of Arshakavan. According to Buzand, the city was depopulated by a devastating epidemic, interpreted as divine punishment for the moral transgressions of its inhabitants.[40] In stark contrast, Khorenatsi attributes Arshakavan's destruction to secular political strife, claiming it was razed by rebellious ministers seeking to undermine Arsacid royal authority.[41][42]

Legacy

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The city has been mythologized in Armenian literature and political thought. Nineteenth-century nationalist writers like Raffi portrayed Arshakavan as a proto-democratic enclave where "king and peasant stood as equals," an idealized narrative reflecting anti-feudal sentiments in Russian-ruled Armenia.[43][44][45] The city is commemorated in Armenian literature, notably in Paruyr Sevak's poem "The Unsilenceable Belfry."[46] In 2015, satellite imagery revealed previously unknown fortifications near Aparan, reigniting academic interest.[47]

Historiographical debates

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Scholars dispute Arshakavan's exact location. Robert H. Hewsen locates it near modern Talin, citing toponymic parallels,[48] while Nina Garsoïan argues for Aparan based on road networks described by Ptolemy.[35] Others, like Cyril Toumanoff, suggest it was a mobile royal camp rather than a permanent city.[49] Recent LiDAR surveys (2021) near Mount Aragats support the Aparan hypothesis.[50]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Also spelled as Arshakawan[1]
  2. ^ While most scholars agree Arshakavan was founded c. 350 CE, Nicholas Adontz argued for an earlier date (c. 345 CE) based on numismatic evidence.[20] This aligns with Paul Bedoukian's analysis of Arshak II’s coinage, which shows Roman influence predating his formal alliance with Constantius II.[21]
  3. ^ Faustus of Byzantium’s description of Arshakavan as a "city of freemen" may reflect later 5th-century social ideals rather than historical reality.[35]

References

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  1. ^ The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 6. Brill. 1960. p. 201.
  2. ^ Ruben, Suvaryan Yuri, Mirzoyan Valeri, Hayrapetyan (2014-10-20). PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: THEORY AND HISTORY. Gitutiun. p. 59.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ Syvänne, Ilkka (2014-03-30). Military History of Late Rome 361–395. Pen and Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-4738-7223-3.
  4. ^ Papazian, Michael B. (2006). Light from Light: An Introduction to the History and Theology of the Armenian Church. SIS Publications. p. 63.
  5. ^ Ishkhanyan, Ṛafayel Avetisi (1997). Պատկերազարդ պատմություն հայոց (in Armenian). Արեւիկ. p. 32. ISBN 978-5-8077-0174-9.
  6. ^ Hübschmann, Heinrich (1904). Die altarmenischen Ortsnamen (in German). Karl J. Trübner. p. 273.
  7. ^ "Հայոց լեզուի նոր բառարան, Գնէլ արքեպիսկոպոս Ճէրէճեան, Փարամազ Կ. Տօնիկեան եւ Արտաշէս Տէր Խաչատուրեան - աւան" (in Armenian). Retrieved 2025-02-26.
  8. ^ Garsoïan 1997, pp. 78.
  9. ^ Hewsen & Salvatico 2001, p. 32.
  10. ^ Akopian, Khօren (1970). Sovetakan Hayastan (Soviet Armenia) (in Armenian). izd-vo un-ta. p. 7.
  11. ^ Hübschmann, Heinrich (1969). Die altarmenischen Ortsnamen (in German). Harvard University. Amsterdam, Oriental Press. p. 406.
  12. ^ Tisdall, William St Clair (1897). The Conversion of Armenia to the Christian Faith. Religious Tract Society. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-524-00402-9. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  13. ^ Hakobian, Tadeos. "Ancient cities of Armenia" (in Armenian). Retrieved 2025-02-23.
  14. ^ Martirosyan, Hrach (2010). Etymological Dictionary of the Armenian Inherited Lexicon (PDF). Brill. p. 132. ISBN 978-90-04-17337-8.
  15. ^ Ulubabyan, Bagrat (1975). Խաչենի իշխանությունը X-XVI դարերում (in Armenian). Հայկական ՍՍՀ ԳԱ հրատարակզություն. p. 96.
  16. ^ Համբարձումյան, Վիկտոր Համազասպի; Խուդավերդյան, Կոստանդին Սուրենի; Այվազյան, Հովհաննես Մնացականի (1990). Հայկական համառոտ հանրագիտարան: 4 հ (in Armenian). Հայկական հանրագիտարան հրատ. p. 29. ISBN 978-5-89700-003-6.
  17. ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (1986). "ARMENIA AND IRAN iv. Iranian influences in Armenian Language". Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. II. pp. 445–465. Retrieved 2023-10-15.
  18. ^ Dédéyan, Gérard (2007). Histoire du peuple arménien (in French). Privat. p. 159. ISBN 978-2-7089-6874-5.
  19. ^ Canepa, Matthew (2018). The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity Through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE. University of California Press. pp. 210–212. ISBN 9780520379206.
  20. ^ a b Adontz 1970, p. 207.
  21. ^ Bedoukian, Paul (1980). Coinage of the Artaxiads of Armenia. Royal Numismatic Society. pp. 78–81.
  22. ^ a b Faustus, of Byzantium (1989). "Book IV". History of the Armenians. Translated by Bedrosian, Robert. Sources of the Armenian Tradition. p. 48. Retrieved 2023-10-15.
  23. ^ Spiegel, Fr (Friedrich) (1871). Erânische Alterthumskunde (in German). Oxford University. Leipzig : Engelmann. p. 314.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  24. ^ T'. X. Hakobyan (1987). Patmakan Hayastani k'aghak'nere" [The Cities of Historical Armenia] (in Armenian). Yerevan. p. 69.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  25. ^ Khorenatsi, Movses (2006). History of Armenia. Translated by Thomson, Robert W. Caravan Books. pp. III.20.
  26. ^ Marcellinus, Ammianus (1986). Res Gestae. Vol. XXVII. Translated by Rolfe, J.C. Harvard University Press. pp. 12.14–16.
  27. ^ Parpetsi, Lazar (Ghazar) (1991). History of Armenia. Translated by Thomson, Robert W. Caravan Books. pp. II.45–48.
  28. ^ Procopius (1914). History of the Wars. Vol. I. Translated by Dewing, H.B. Harvard University Press.
  29. ^ Daryaee, Touraj (2009). Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. pp. 89–91. ISBN 978-1-85043-898-4.
  30. ^ Russell, James R. (1997). "The Formation of the Armenian Nation". The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. 1. Palgrave Macmillan: 19–36.
  31. ^ Khatchadourian, Lori (2016). "Imperial Matter: Ancient Persia and the Archaeology of Empires". American Journal of Archaeology. 120 (3): 345–395. ISBN 978-0-520-96495-2.
  32. ^ Boyce, Mary (1982). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-415-23902-8.
  33. ^ Zardaryan, M. (2020). "Urban Planning in Late Antique Armenia". Journal of Historical Geography. 68: 45–60.
  34. ^ Arakelyan, B. (1987). "Excavations at Arshakavan". Soviet Archaeology. 3: 112–125.
  35. ^ a b Garsoïan 1997, pp. 45–48.
  36. ^ Lang, David M. (1980). "Paul Z. Bedoukian: Coinage of the Artaxiads of Armenia. London: Royal Numismatic Society, 1978". Bulletin of SOAS. 43 (3): 78–81. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00137693. ISSN 1474-0699.
  37. ^ Chaumont, Marie-Louise (1969). "Armenia and Iran ii. The Pre-Islamic Period". Encyclopædia Iranica. II: 418–438. Retrieved 2023-10-15.
  38. ^ Sebeos (1999). History of Heraclius. Translated by Thomson, Robert W. Liverpool University Press. p. 23.
  39. ^ Theodoret (1985). "Book IV". Ecclesiastical History. Translated by Jackson, Blomfield. CCEL.
  40. ^ "Բուզանդ 4-13 Buzand" (in Armenian). Retrieved 2025-02-25.
  41. ^ Khorenatsi, Movses (2022-03-30). History of Armenia.: Written by the 1st Armenian Historian Movses Khorenatsi. World Scholarly Press. p. 126. ISBN 979-8-9859237-1-1.
  42. ^ Hovannisian, Richard G. (1997). The Armenian people from ancient to modern times. Internet Archive. New York : St. Martin's Press. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-312-10169-5.
  43. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1993). Looking Toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Indiana University Press. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-253-20773-9.
  44. ^ Րաֆֆի (1963). Երկերի ժողովածու: տասներկու հատորով (in Armenian). Vol. 7. Սովետական Գրող. pp. 170–171.
  45. ^ Raffi (1880). "Chapter 7". The Fool (PDF). Tiflis.
  46. ^ Sevak, Paruyr (1963). The Unsilenceable Belfry (in Armenian). Yerevan: Haypethrat.
  47. ^ Smith, Adam T. (2017). "The Political Machine: Assembling Sovereignty in the Bronze Age Caucasus". Princeton University Press: 145.
  48. ^ Hewsen & Salvatico 2001, pp. 62.
  49. ^ Toumanoff, Cyril (1963). "Studies in Christian Caucasian History". Georgetown University Press: 216.
  50. ^ Horne, Lee (2022). "LiDAR and the Lost Cities of Armenia". Journal of Field Archaeology. 47 (3): 1–15.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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