Kiliwa, alternate Names: Kiliwi, Ko’lew or Quiligua (in Kiliwa: Koleeu ñaja') is a Yuman language spoken in Baja California, in the far northwest of Mexico, by the Kiliwa people.

Kiliwa
Koleeu ñaja'
Native toMexico
RegionBaja California
EthnicityKiliwa
Native speakers
4 (2018)[1]
Latin
Official status
Official language in
 Mexico
Regulated byInstituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas
Language codes
ISO 639-3klb
Glottologkili1268
ELPKiliwa
Kiliwa is classified as Critically Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

76 people reported their language as Kiliwa in a 2020 census.[2] However, a count in 2018 found only 4 speakers remaining.[1]

History edit

The Kiliwa language was extensively studied by Mauricio J. Mixco, who published Kiliwa texts as well as a dictionary and studies of syntax.

As recently as the mid-1900s, Mixco reported that members of the native community universally spoke Kiliwa as their first language, with many Kiliwas also bilingual in Paipai. At the start of the twenty-first century, Kiliwa is still spoken; a 2000 census reported 52 speakers. However, the language is considered to be in danger of extinction.

Kiliwa is a language of the Yuman Family Language Summit, held annually since 2001.[3]

Classification edit

Kiliwa is the southernmost representative of the Yuman family, and the one that is most distinct from the remaining languages, which constitute Core Yuman. The Kiliwa's neighbors to the south, the Cochimí, spoke a language or a family of languages that was probably closely related to but not within the Yuman family. Consequently, the Kiliwa lie at the historic "center of gravity" for the differentiation of Yuman from Cochimí and of the Yuman branches from each other.

Linguistic prehistorians are not in agreement as to whether the Kiliwa's linguistic ancestors are most likely to have migrated into the Baja California peninsula from the north separately from the ancestors of the Cochimí and the Core Yumans, or whether they became differentiated from those groups in place. The controversial technique of glottochronology suggests that the separation of Kiliwa from Core Yuman may have occurred about 2,000-3,000 years ago.

Phonology edit

Consonants edit

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
plain lab. plain lab.
Nasal m n ɲ
Stop/Affricate p t k q ʔ
Fricative s x h
Rhotic r
Approximant l j w

Intervocalic allophones of /p, t, k, kʷ/ can occur as [β, ð, ɣ, ɣʷ]. An approximant sound such as a /j/ sound after a glottal /h/ can become devoiced as [j̊], as with a devoiced [ʍ] sound being an allophone of /hʷ/.

Vowels edit

There are three vowel quantities; /i, u, a/, that can also be distinguished with vowel length /iː, uː, aː/. Close vowel sounds /i, u/ can range to mid vowel sounds as [e, o], and with vowel length as [eː, oː]. An epenthetic schwa sound [ə] can occur within root-initial consonant clusters.

Pitch Accents edit

(1) High level, (2) High-falling level, (3) Low level.[4]

Orthography edit

Alphabet edit

The Kiliwa language is written using a modified Roman alphabet, as the language's culture has historically been unwritten and entirely oral. It consists of 15 consonants which includes 3 digraphs: ⟨b⟩, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨g⟩, ⟨h⟩, ⟨hh⟩, ⟨k⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨nh⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨y⟩.[5]

Alphabet [5]
Letter Phoneme Kiliwa Examples English Translation
b /b/ A'bobuin


Ábel

Which?


Where?

ch /t͡ʃ/ Chiin


Jcheet

Laugh


Steal

g /g/ Mugaw


Msig

Flour


One

h /h/ Ha'


Haa

Mouth


Yes

k /k/ Jaq


Kujat

Bone


Blood

l /l/ Lepee


Msigl paayp

Liver


Six

m /m/ Meyaal


Smak

Tortilla


Leaf

n /n/ Nay


Mpaan

Kid


Sister

ny /ɲ/ Nhieeg

Jnhieel

Black


Lariat

p /p/ Pa


Gap

Stomach


Pain

s /s/ Smaa


Kiis

Sleep


Large

t /t/ Tmaa


Mat

Eat


No

w /w/ Kuwaa


Sit

y /j/ Yiit


Tay

Seed


Big

' /ʔ/ Jo’on


Msi'

Very


Star

There are also 5 short and 5 long vowels: /a/, /aː/, /e/, /eː/, /i/, /iː/, /o/, /oː/ , /u/, and /uː/. These are represented in the chart below.

Vowels [5]
Vowels Kiliwa Examples English Translation


a


/a/

Ábel


Tay

Where


Big


aa


/aː/

Jaa

Maaw


Yaaywaa

To go


Grandma


scorpion


e


/e/

Enhoop


Pel wat


Miy pi jse

Fight


To return


Quill


ee


/eː/

Eel


Teey


Juwee

Sore


Night


To give


i


/i/

Ipaa


Kaichmaa


Kemelootí

People


Money/metal/iron


ii


/iː/

Yiit


Chiin


Tiingkiil

Seed


Laughter


mockingbird


o


/o/

Kotip


Jsilo

Heart


Hole


oo


/oː/

Enhoop


Kekoo

Fight/ To struggle


Woman


u


/u/

Ujaa


Ku'nip

Look after/look out for


Poor


uu


/uː/

Uusmaat


Piyauup


Kuu

Sleep


To carry/load


Grandpa (maternal)

Other digraphs used in the Kiliwa language include: gu, hu, and ku. They are shown in the chart below.

Digraphs Phoneme Kiliwa Examples English Translation


gu


/ɡʷ/

Pagu

Hkuigu

Rabbit


Hunt


hu


/hʷ/

P’huh'k’ ii


Mphuh-mi

Thud


This box/bag

hu


/hʷ/

Huwaa u


Ju sawi

Seat


Clean

ku


/kʷ/

Hkuigu


Tukuipaai

To hunt


Animal

hu




The inclusion of / , / is used as a brief pause, such as that in Spanish.  

Numbers edit

Numbers in Kiliwa can be expressed up to several thousands without the use of Spanish loanwords. Counting is done using both fingers and toes. There is a resemblance of the Kiliwa word ‘sal’ which is the root for ‘finger/hand’. [6]

Number Kiliwa [5][6][7] English translation
1 Msig One
2 Juwak Two
3 Jmi'k Three
4 Mnak Four
5 Salchipam Five
6 Msigl paayp Six
7 Juwakl paayp Seven
8 Jmi'kl paayp Eight
9 Msig tkmat Nine
10 Chipam msig Ten

The following numbers are formed by using the form for the ten's place 'chipam' followed by its multiplier digit (the digits of those listed above from 1-9).

Number Kiliwa [7] English translation
10 Chipam msig Ten
20 Chipam juwak Twenty
30 Chipam jmi'k Thirty
40 Chipam mnak Forty
50 Chipam salchipam Fifty
60 Chipam msigl paayp Sixty
70 Chipam juwakl paayp Seventy
80 Chipam jmi'kl paayp Eighty
90 Chipam msig tkmat Ninety

The hundreds are formed by using the expression ‘chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam’ followed by the multiplier digits found in that of numbers 1-9.[7]

Number Kiliwa [7] English translation
100 Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msig One hundred
200 Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam juwak Two hundred
300 Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam jmi'k Three hundred
400 Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam mnak Four hundred
500 Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam salchipam Five hundred
600 Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msigl paayp Six hundred
700 Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam juwakl paayp Seven hundred
800 Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam jmi'kl paayp Eight hundred
900 Chipam msig u’ kun yuu chipam msig tkmat Nine hundred

Lastly, the thousands are formed by using the expression ‘chipam msig u’ kuetet’ before using the multiplier digits once again.[7]

Number Kiliwa [7] English Translation
1,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet msig One thousand
2,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet juwak Two thousand
3,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet hmi'k Three thousand
4,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet mnak Four thousand
5,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet salchipam Five thousand
6,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet msigl paayp Six thousand
7,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet juwakl paayp Seven thousand
8,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet jmi'kl paayp Eight thousand
9,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet msig tkmat Nine thousand
10,000 Chipam msig u’ kuetet cipam msig Ten thousand

Morphology edit

The morphology in the Kiliwa language consists of many affixes and clitics. More of these are available on the verb rather than the noun. These affixes are usually untouched and added on to a modified root.

Singular and Plurals edit

In Kiliwa there are multiple ways of pluralizing words. There are several to differentiate it from the singular form. The most common affixes are t, chau, m, u and si’waa.[5]

Singular Plural Language
This

Mi

These

Mit

1.English

2.Kiliwa

Sit

Kuwaa

All of you sit

Kuwaat

1.English

2.Kiliwa

Come!

Kiyee

All of you come

Kitiyee

1.English

2.Kiliwa

Want

Unyieey

We want

Unyieey chau

1.English

2.Kiliwa

Owl

Ojoo

Owls

Ojoo chau

1.English

2.Kiliwa

Hill

Weey

Hills

Uweey

1.English

2.Kiliwa

Coyote

Mlti’

Coyotes

Mlti’ si’waa

1.English

2.Kiliwa

Eye

Yuu

Eyes

Yuum

1.English

2.Kiliwa

There are also some instances in which the plural form changes the vowels, for example: Kill! (Kinyii); Kill them! (Kenyoot); Grab! (Kiyuu); Grab them! (Kiyeewi);  Stand! (Ku'um); All of you stand! (Ke'ewi).[5]

Adverbs edit

Used in adjectives or nouns to denote a superlative degree of meaning.[5]

Examples:

Good/better Mgaai maai
Dwarf Nmoohh maai
Heavy Mechaa maai
Injured Tgap maai
Horrible Hhchool maai

Other adverbs include: Mgaai (better), Mak (here), Paak (there), Psap mi (today), Hhchoom (yesterday), Kiis i'bm (later), Mat pi’im kun (never) [5]

Examples:

Is better Mgaai gap
She is the best Paa mgaai gap eto
He is better than me Paa mgaai gap nhal im mat
There is no one here Mak ma'ali uma
Get out of here Mak kpaam
Come here Mak kiyee
There it is Paak kuwaa
The car passed by there Owa' kose'hhin e' mil pahhkaai tomat
Stand right there Paa ku'u' kiyuu
I can't today Psap mi ahhaa mat semioo
My mom will come today Psap mi nhab nh'oo puhhaa
The party is today Enhiaai yiima’ u’ enhiaai mim
It rained a lot yesterday Hhchoom hhu'hhak maai
My dad left yesterday Nhab s’oot hhchoom kupaa tomat
I went to the beach yesterday Hhchoom hha' tayel ahhaa
I’ll see you later Kiis i’bm maat psaawi
I’ll never visit you Mat pi’im kun mil waal ahhaa mat
Why don’t you ever come? Piyim mat pi’im miyee mat mi o'
Why don’t you ever visit me? Mat pi’im kun pinhee mi mat i'

Adjective edit

-Tay: something of a big/great size for animals and objects or someone obtains a higher power/status due to profession.[5]

Examples:

Big head 'Ii tay
Big nose Pi' tay
Big dog Tat tay
Attorney Ha' kumaag tay
Architect Uwa' kosay tay
Painter Tukujaay tay

Suffix P is used to signify something of a smaller degree for several adjectives.[5]

Examples:

Wet Ja'al
Somewhat wet Ja'alp
Dark Teey
Somewhat dark Teeyp
Black Nyieeg
Somewhat black Nyieegp
Skinny Jo'on
Somewhat skinny Jo'onp
Dry S'aay
Somewhat dry S’aayp

Conjunctions edit

Conjunctions are connect two or more ideas into a single sentence.There are also disjunctive conjunctions to separate two or more mutually exclusive options presented in a sentence.[5]

Examples: /and/ translates in Kiliwa to e.

Juan and Pedro Juan e Pedro e
Water and salt Ja' e kuii e
Dog and cat Tat e nmi’ e
You and I Ma’p e nyaap
Chair and table Juwaa u’ e tmaa tay u’

Verbs edit

  • Verbs are more complicated than nouns in Kiliwa language
  • There are more verb prefixes present, and fewer suffixes and infixes
  • The prefixes demonstrate more structure within the grammar

Conjugation of the verbs edit

The conjugation allows us to tell what the action is doing and taking place in the verb [6]

  • Example in Kiliwa: Conjugation of Verb Tmaa (eat)

Past & Present edit

Example: "I" presented [5]

I eat Nhaap tmaa
You eat Ma'p tma-maa
He/She eats Nhipaa tmaa
We eat Panhaap tmaa
They eat Nhipaat tmaa-t

Past [6]

I ate Nhaap kuiil tmaa
You ate Ma'p kuiil tmamaa
He/She ate Nhipaa kuiil tmaa
We ate Panhaap kuiil tmaat chau
They ate Nhipaat kuiil tmaat chau

Future [5]

I will eat


Nhaap tmaa seti' uma'

You will eat Ma'p tmamaa seti' uma'
He/She will eat Nhipaa tmaa seti' uma'
We will eat Panhaap tmaat chaut seti' uma'
They will eat Nhipaat tmaat chaut seti' uma'

Nouns edit

In the Kiliwa language they are marked by the definite and indefinite [6]


Definite Indefinite
-hi (singular) -si(singular)

Determiner NP

The Kiliwa has 3 degree of distance that appear in the third person pronoun [6]

Examples:

-mi “This” (near speaker)
-paa “That” (near hearer)
-nyaa “That” (far from both)

The demonstrative NP edit

Kiliwa language is also measured in the independent third-person pronoun in the demonstrative Np [6]

Examples:

Mi-chau → ‘these;they’ → (near speaker)

paa-chau → ‘those;they → (near hearer)

nyaa-chau → “those;they → (far from both)

mi-t cham ‘This/(s)he leaves (it)’

mi-chau-t caam-u → ‘These/they leave (it)’

m '-saau   ‘I see this one/him/her’

mi-chau=m=juak-m ʔ-cam → ‘I leave with these/them’

mi-chau-l '-saau   ‘I looked into these one/them’

Gender Markers edit

When referring to a male human or animal one adds kumeei [5]

When referring to a female human or animal one adds kökoo [5]

Axis edit

Example: kumeei is male and kökoo is female

Dog Tat
(Female) dog Tat kökoo
(Male) dog Tat kumeei
Cow / Bull Hhak
Cow Hhak kökoo
Bull Hhak kumeei

Syntax edit

Kiliwa is a verb-final language that usually follows the order subject-object-verb. Dependent object clause should be found before the verb, whereas relative or adjectival clauses appear following the noun they modify. While behavioral context, negations, auxiliaries, etc. can alter the placement of certain aspects, the Object-Verb form remains true in most sentences.

Example of transitive sentence in which the structure is simply object-verb: [6]

This one/he/she eats/ate coyotes.
Kiliwa Subject Object Verb
mit melti’caum pahmaa this one - mit coyotes - melti’caum eats/ate - pahmaa

Sentences with a negation typically contain the object-verb format, however, basic structure would be subject - pre-verb negative - object - verb - final negative. Example: [6]

This man did not shoot that dog
Kiliwa Subject Pre-verb Neg. Object-Verb Final Neg.
kuumiimit kuat tatpaam hkkaa mat This man - kuumiimit did not - kuat shoot (that) dog - tatpaam (that dog) hkkaa (shoot) mat

Toponyms edit

The following Kiliwa toponyms are from the map given in Mixco (2000:70).

Settlements
  • Ja' Kupan /xaʔ kupan/ - Agua Caliente
  • Jpi' Kunaan /xpiʔ kuna:n/ - San Isidro
  • Mjuaa /mxʷa:/ - Los Coches
  • Pnyil /pɲil/ - Santo Domingo
  • Ku'ii Yuwu /kuʔi: yuwuʔ/ - San Quintin
  • Juiim Ja' /xʷi:m haʔ/ - San Felipe
  • Ipaa Cha'amui /ipa: t͡ʃaʔamʷi/ - Tijuana
  • Jua Nyimaat /xʷa: ɲima:t/ - Mexicali
  • Ja'Tay Juatu' /xaʔtaj xʷatuʔ/ - Ensenada
  • Yuul Mat /ju:l mat/ - Santa Catarina
Natural features
  • Ku'ii Yaku' /kuʔiː yakuʔ/ - Salinas
  • Hiil /hi:l/- Cañón de la Esperanza
  • Hyaau /hʲa:w/ - San Matías Pass
  • Kumsalp /kumsalp/ - Colnett Point
Mountains
  • Mou Weey /mow we:j/ - Cerro Borrego
  • Nyaay Weey /ɲa:j we:j/ - peak just to the south of Cerro Borrego
  • Mou Wa' Weey /mow waʔ we:j/ - Cerro Salvatierra
  • Kaay Spkuin /ka:j spkʷin/ - peak just to the south of Cerro Salvatierra
  • Mt Waay Walu Weey /mt wa:j walu we:j/ - Picacho de Diablo
  • Jaal Jak /xa:l xak/ - Sierra de San Pedro Martir
  • Kunyil Weey /kuɲil we:j/ - Cerro Colorado
Bodies of water
  • Ja'tay /xaʔtaj/ - Pacific Ocean
  • Chuwílo Tay /t͡ʃuwilo taj/ - Arroyo Grande
  • Mat Pchuj /mat pt͡ʃux/ - San José Creek
  • Msuan /msʷan/ - San Telmo Creek
  • Jmil /xmil/ - San Rafael River
  • Ja' Hiil /xaʔ hi:l/ - Colorado River

References edit

  1. ^ a b "Kiliwa language in danger of extinction in Baja California". Veraz Informa (in Mexican Spanish). Retrieved 2018-05-11.
  2. ^ Lenguas indígenas y hablantes de 3 años y más, 2020 INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020.
  3. ^ "Yuman Language Family Summit Home Page". Retrieved 2012-09-22.
  4. ^ Mixco, Mauricio J. (2013). Introduction to the Kiliwa Language. Department of Linguistics, University of Utah.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Estrada Ramírez, Arnulfo. (2007). Diccionario Práctico de la Lengua Kiliwa. ISBN 978-970-54-0026-1. OCLC 615605767.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Mixco, Mauricio J. (2013). Introduction to the Kiliwa Language. Department of Linguistics, University of Utah.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Ulrich, Alexis. "Kiliwa numbers". Of Languages and Numbers. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
  • Mixco, Mauricio J.. 1971. Kiliwa Grammar. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley.
  • Mixco, Mauricio J.. 1976. "Kiliwa Texts". International Journal of American Linguistics Native American Text Series 1:92-101.
  • Mixco, Mauricio J.. 1977. "The Linguistic Affiliation of the Ñakipa and Yakakwal of Lower California". International Journal of American Linguistics 43:189-200.
  • Mixco, Mauricio J.. 1983. Kiliwa Texts: "When I Have Donned My Crest of Stars" University of Utah Anthropological Papers No. 107. (Myths and legends narrated by Rufino Ochurte and Braulio Espinosa after 1966.). Salt Lake City.
  • Mixco, Mauricio J.. 1985. Kiliwa Dictionary. University of Utah Anthropological Papers No. 109. Salt Lake City.
  • Mixco, Mauricio J.. 1996. Kiliwa de Arroyo León, Baja California. Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México No. 18. Mexico City: Colegio de México.
  • Mixco, Mauricio J.. 2000. Kiliwa. Munich, Germany: Lincom.
  • Mixco, Mauricio J.. 2006. "The Indigenous Languages". In The Prehistory of Baja California: Advances in the Archaeology of the Forgotten Peninsula, edited by Don Laylander and Jerry D. Moore, pp. 24–41. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
  • Moore, Jerry D.. 2006. "The San Quintín-El Rosario Region". In The Prehistory of Baja California: Advances in the Archaeology of the Forgotten Peninsula, edited by Don Laylander and Jerry D. Moore, pp. 179–195. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
  • Ochoa Zazueta, Jesús Ángel. 1978. Los kiliwa y el mundo se hizo así. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional Indigenista,

External links edit