Germany–United Kingdom relations

Germany – United Kingdom relations
Map indicating locations of Germany and United Kingdom

Germany
United Kingdom

Germany – United Kingdom relations also Anglo-German relations are the bilateral relations between Britain and Germany.

Before the unification of Germany in 1871, Britain was often allied in wartime with Prussia. The Hanoverian kings of Great Britain (from George I through William IV) were also the rulers of the German state of Hanover. Queen Victoria married Albert, the German prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and their grandsons included the rulers of Britain and Germany in 1914. The Mountbatten family is of Hessian ancestry.

Britain and Germany fought two wars--World War I and World War II (against each other), and since 1955 have been military allies in NATO. Trade relations have been very strong since the late Middle Ages, when the German cities of the Hanseatic League traded with England. Both nations are active in the EU.

Nowadays the countries have a very strong relationship of economic and political co-operation, and as of present, the British-German relationship is one of the most functioning consolidations in Europe.

Country comparison

Germany Germany United Kingdom United Kingdom
Population 81,757,600 62,041,708
Area 357,021 km2 (137,847 sq mi) 244,820  km2 (94,526 sq mi )
Population Density 229/km2 (593/sq mi) 246/km2 (637/sq mi)
Capital Berlin London
Largest City Berlin – 3,439,100 (4,900,000 Metro) London – 7,556,900 (13,945,000 Metro)
Government Federal parliamentary constitutional republic Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Official languages German (de facto and de jure) English (de facto)
Main religions 67.07% Christianity, 29.6% non-Religious, 5% Islam,
0.25% Buddhism, 0.25% Judaism, 0.1% Hinduism, 0.09% Sikhism		 59.3% Christianity, 25.1% Non-Religious, 7.2% Unstated, 4.8% Islam,
1.5% Hinduism, 0.8% Sikhism, 0.5% Judaism, 0.4% Buddhism
Ethnic groups 80.0% German, 4.3% Turkish, 17.7% other[1] 92.1% White, 4.4% Asian, 2% Black, 1.2% Multi-racial, 0.4% Other
GDP (nominal) €2.936 trillion (US$3.66 trillion) €35,825 per capita ($44,660) £1.695 trillion (US$2.674 trillion), £27,805 per capita ($43,875)
Expatriate populations 266,000 German-born people live in the UK 250,000 British-born people live in Germany
Military expenditures €37.5 billion (US$46.8 billion) (FY 2008)[2] £41 billion (US$65 billion) (FY 2009–10)[3]
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History

See also: Saxon Shore, Anglo-Saxons, and Christianization of the Germanic peoples

The Celtic Church established missionary activities in mainland Europe, including what is now Germany. See Schottenkloster.

Shared Heritage

English and German are both West Germanic languages. Modern English has diverged significantly from its continental sister languages, having received substantially more French and Latin influence and perhaps contact with the world outside Europe through trade and imperialism has also influenced English to a greater degree. However, English has its roots in the languages spoken by Germanic peoples from mainland Europe, more specifically various peoples came from what is now the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark, including a people called the Angles, after whom English is named. Many everyday words in English are of Germanic origin and are therefore similar to their German counterparts, while more intellectual and formal words are of French or Latin origin, also English is not the only native language spoken in Britain today (for examples Gaelic, Welsh and Cornish) and German is not he only native language spoken in Germany (for example Lower Sorbian and Upper Sorbian) but the shared origins of much of British and German language and culture are undeniable. Assertions of shared genetic heritage between the United Kingdom and Germany have been more difficult to quantify.

Main article: Hanseatic League
Main trading routes of the Hanseatic League

Trade and the Hanseatic League

Main article: Hanseatic League

There is a long history of trade relations between the Germans and the British. The Hanseatic League was a commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and their market towns that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe. It stretched from the Baltic to the North Sea during the 13th–17th centuries, and included London. The main center was Lübeck, Germany. The Hanseatic League facilitated trade between London and numerous cities, most of them controlled by German merchants. It also opened up trade with the Baltic.[4]

Royal family

England's first diplomatic relations with Germany were through the dynastic alliance pursued between Æthelberht of Kent and Charibert I, and were significantly augmented later under Offa of Mercia and Charlemagne. Until the late 17th century such marriages between the two nations were only sporadic, due initially to the largely French preference of the House of Wessex, when both the Anglo-Saxons and Franks continually had to contend with severe Danish and Norman Viking attacks and colonisations. Another reason for estrangement was Germany's increasing preoccupation with Italy: the two nations together formed the core Holy Roman Empire. Empress Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of England, was married between 1114 and 1125 to Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor but they had no issue. She then married Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou and tried to usurp the kingdom of Stephen of England; her son became Henry II of England. In 1256, Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall was elected King of Germany and his sons were surnamed Almain. Throughout this period, the Steelyard of London was a typical German community in England. German mercenaries were used in the Wars of the Roses.

Subsequently Anne of Cleves was the consort of Henry VIII. The Habsburg Philip II of Spain in 1554, was another consort of the English monarch of German stock. It was not until William III of England that a king of German origin came to reign, from the House of Nassau. The consort of his successor Queen Anne was Prince George of Denmark from the House of Oldenburg, who had no surviving children, yet a cadet dynastic successor[clarification needed] in Mountbatten-Windsor today. Philip, William and George each failed to provide heirs for England and Britain.

In 1714, succeeding Queen Anne, George I, a German-speaking Hanoverian prince of mixed British and German descent, ascended to the British throne, founding the House of Hanover. This was descended from the Wittelsbachs who descended from Elizabeth of Bohemia. For over a century, Britain's monarchs were also rulers of Hanover (first as Prince Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, then as a separate Kingdom). This was a personal union rather than a political one, with the two countries remaining quite separate. Hanover was occupied during the Napoleonic wars, but some Hanoverian troops fled to the United Kingdom to form the King's German Legion, a unit within the British army made up of ethnic Germans. The link between the two kingdoms finally ended in 1837 with the accession of Queen Victoria to the British throne: under the Salic Law women were ineligible for the throne of Hanover.

Every British monarch from George I to George V in the 20th century, took a Royal German consort (the consort of Edward VII was Alexandra of Denmark); George VI chose a Scotswoman but his daughter Elizabeth II married a Prince of Greece and Denmark who is of German heritage and is a patrilineal relative of Prince George of Denmark mentioned above; a further indication of German heritage is the name Mountbatten. The British Royal family retained the German surname von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha until 1917, when, in response to anti-German feelings during World War I, it was legally changed to the more British "Windsor". In the same year, members of the British Royal family members gave up any German titles they held, whilst their German relatives were stripped of any British titles they held by an Act of Parliament.

1890-1919

See also: Causes of World War I and World War I naval arms race

Coming to power in 1888, the young Kaiser Wilhelm dismissed Chancellor Bismarck in 1890 and sought aggressively to increasing Germany's influence in the world through his Weltpolitik. Foreign policy was controlled by the erratic Kaiser, who played an increasingly reckless hand,[5] and by the powerful foreign office under the leadership of Friedrich von Holstein.[6] The foreign office in Berlin argued that: first, a long-term coalition between France and Russia had to fall apart; secondly, Russia and Britain would never get together; and, finally, Britain would eventually seek an alliance with Germany. Germany refused to renew its treaties with Russia. But Russia did form a closer relationship with France in the Dual Alliance of 1894, since both were worried about the possibilities of German aggression. London refused to agree to the formal alliance that Germany sought. Berlin's analysis proved mistaken on every point, leading to Germany's increasing isolation and its dependence on the Triple Alliance, which brought together Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. The Triple Alliance was undermined by differences between Austria and Italy, and in 1915 Italy switched sides.[7]

Naval race

Main article: World War I naval arms race

The British Royal Navy dominated the globe in the 19th century, but after 1890 Germany worked to achieve parity. It never did catch up, but the resulting naval race heightened tensions between the two nations.[8][9]

The German Navy under Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz had ambitions to rival the great British Navy, and dramatically expanded its fleet in the early 20th century to protect the colonies and exert power worldwide.[10] Tirpitz started a programme of warship construction in 1898. In 1890, Germany traded the strategic island of Heligoland in the North Sea with Britain in exchange for the eastern African island of Zanzibar, and proceeded to construct a great naval base there. The British, however, kept well ahead in the naval race by the introduction of the highly advanced new Dreadnought battleship in 1907.[11]

Moroccan crisis

In the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905, Germany nearly came to blows with Britain and France when the latter attempted to establish a protectorate over Morocco. The Germans were upset at having not been informed about French intentions, and declared their support for Moroccan independence. William II made a highly provocative speech regarding this. The following year, a conference was held in which all of the European powers except Austria-Hungary (by now little more than a German satellite) sided with France. A compromise was brokered by the United States where the French relinquished some, but not all, control over Morocco.[12]

Coming of the World War

Main article: Causes of World War I

In Germany left-wing parties, especially the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) made large gains in the 1912 German election. German government at the time was dominated by the Prussian Junkers (landed elites) who feared the rise of these left-wing parties. German historian Fritz Fischer famously argued that they deliberately sought an external war to distract the population and whip up patriotic support for the government.[13] Other scholars argue that German conservatives were ambivalent about a war, worrying that losing a war would have disastrous consequences, and even a successful war might alienate the population if it were lengthy or difficult.[14]

In explaining why neutral Britain went to war with Germany, Paul Kennedy, in The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (1980) argued that it was critical for war that Germany become economically more powerful than Britain. Kennedy downplayed the disputes over economic trade imperialism, the Baghdad Railway, confrontations in Eastern Europe, high-charged political rhetoric and domestic pressure-groups. Germany's reliance time and again on sheer power, while Britain increasingly appealed to moral sensibilities, played a role, especially in seeing the invasion of Belgium as a necessary military tactic or a profound moral crime. The German invasion of Belgium was not important because the British decision had already been made and the British were more concerned with the fate of France.[15] Kennedy argues that by far the main reason was London's fear that a repeat of 1870—when Prussia and the German states smashed France—would mean Germany, with a powerful army and navy, would control the English Channel, and northwest France. British policy makers insisted that would be a catastrophe for British security.[16]

In 1839 Britain, Germany and other powers agreed on the Treaty of London to guarantee the neutrality of Belgium. Germany violated that treaty in 1914—calling it a "scrap of paper," so Britain declared war.[17]

British victory

Britain and the Allies won the World War, as Germany virtually surrendered in November, 1918. In the Khaki Election of 1918, coming days later, Prime Minister David Lloyd George promised to impose a harsh treaty on Germany. At the great Versailles Conference, however, Lloyd George took a much more moderate approach. France and Italy however demanded and achieved harsh terms, including forcing Germany to admit starting the war (which humiliated Germany as it is only partially true), and a demand that Germany pay the entire Allied cost of the war, including veterans' benefits and interest.[18]

Interwar period

In 1920-33 Britain and Germany were on generally good terms, as shown by the Locarno Treaties[19] and Kellogg–Briand Pact which helped reintegrate Germany into Europe. At the Genoa conference in 1922, Britain clashed openly with France over the amount of reparations to be collected from Germany. In 1923 France occupied the Ruhr industrial area of Germany following German default in reparations. Britain condemned the French move, and largely supported Germany in the ensuring Ruhrkampf (Ruhr struggle) between the Germans and the French. In 1924 Britain forced France to make major concessions in regards to the amount of reparations Germany had to pay.[20]

With the coming to power of Hitler and the Nazis in 1933, relations turned tense. In 1934 a secret report by the Defence Requirements Committee identified Germany as the "ultimate potential enemy" and called for Continental expeditionary force of five mechanised divisions and fourteen infantry divisions. However, budget restraints prevented the formation of this large force.[21] In 1935 the two nations agreed to the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, designed to avoid a repeat of the pre-1914 naval race.[22]

By 1936 a policy of appeasement began under Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in an effort to prevent war, or at least postpone it until the British military was ready. Appeasement has been the subject of intense debate for seventy years among academics, politicians and diplomats. The historians' assessments have ranged from condemnation for allowing Hitler's Germany to grow too strong, to the judgement that he had no alternative and acted in Britain's best interests. At the time, these concessions were very popular and the Munich Pact in 1938 among Germany, Britain, France and Italy prompted Chamberlain to announce that he had secured "peace for our time".[23]

World War II

See also: Nazi propaganda and the United Kingdom

Nazi Germany and the United Kingdom fought each other during World War II, and this confrontation continues to loom large in the British public consciousness. War was brought to British skies in the Battle of Britain, but after their aerial assault was repulsed, the Germans postponed the planned invasion of Britain. Following D-Day, British forces contributed substantially to the defeat of Germany, and occupied part of it.

Post-war period

Since 1945 Germany hosts several British military installations in Western part of the country as part of British Forces Germany. Both countries are members of the European Union and NATO, and share strong economic ties. In 1990, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher opposed German reunification, but eventually accepted the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany.

Nowadays the countries have a very strong relationship of economic and political co-operation, especially within the EU, although of course disagreements inevitably arise between the two once every so often.

David McAllister, the former minister-president of the German state of Lower Saxony, son of a Scottish father and a German mother, holds British and German citizenship.

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Twinnings

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See also

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References

  1. ^ CIA. "CIA Factbook". Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  2. ^ [1]
  3. ^ The Top 15 Military Spenders, 2008
  4. ^ James Westfall Thompson, Economic and Social History of Europe in the Later Middle Ages (1300–1530) (1931) pp. 146–79.
  5. ^ On the Kaiser's "histrionic personality disorder", see Frank B. Tipton, A History of Modern Germany since 1815 (2003) pp 243–45
  6. ^ Röhl, J.C.G. (Sept 1966). "Friedrich von Holstein". Historical Journal 9 (3): 379–388. 
  7. ^ Raff, Diethher (1988), History of Germany from the Medieval Empire to the Present, pp. 34–55, 202–206 
  8. ^ Paul Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism 1860–1914 (1980)
  9. ^ Peter Padfield, The Great Naval Race: Anglo-German Naval Rivalry 1900-1914 (2005)
  10. ^ Woodward, David (July 1963). "Admiral Tirpitz, Secretary of State for the Navy, 1897–1916". History Today 13 (8): 548–555. 
  11. ^ Herwig, Holger (1980). Luxury Fleet: The Imperial German Navy 1888–1918. 
  12. ^ Esthus, Raymond A. (1970). Theodore Roosevelt and the International Rivalries. pp. 66–111. 
  13. ^ Fritz Fischer Germany's Aims In the First World War (1967)
  14. ^ Ferguson, Niall The Pity of War (1999)
  15. ^ Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 pp 457–62.
  16. ^ Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914, pp 464-70
  17. ^ Martin Gilbert (2004). The First World War: A Complete History. Macmillan. p. 32. 
  18. ^ Manfred F. Boemeke et al., eds. (1998). The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years. Cambridge U.P. p. 12. 
  19. ^ Frank Magee, "Limited Liability"? Britain and the Treaty of Locarno," Twentieth Century British History, (Jan 1995) 6#1 pp 1-22
  20. ^ Sally Marks, "The Myths of Reparations," Central European History, (1978) 11#3 pp 231-255
  21. ^ Keith Neilson; Greg Kennedy; David French (2010). The British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856-1956 : Essays in Honour of David French. Ashgate. p. 120. 
  22. ^ D.C. Watt, "The Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935: An Interim Judgement" Journal of Modern History, (1956) 28#2 pp 155-75 in JSTOR
  23. ^ Frank McDonough, Neville Chamberlain, Appeasement and the British Road to War (Manchester University Press, 1998)
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Further reading

  • Adams, R.J.Q.,British Politics and Foreign Policy in the Age of Appeasement, 1935–1939 (1993)
  • Bartlett, C. J. British Foreign Policy in the Twentieth Century (1989)
  • Berger, Stefan, and Norman LaPorte, eds. The Other Germany: Perceptions and Influences in British-East German Relations, 1945–1990 (Augsburg, 2005).
  • Deighton, Anne. The Impossible Peace: Britain, the Division of Germany and the Origins of the Cold War (Oxford, 1993)
  • Faber, David. Munich, 1938: Appeasement and World War II (2009) excerpt and text search
  • Kennedy, Paul. The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism 1860–1914 (London, 1980) excerpt and text search
  • Macintyre, Terry. Anglo-German Relations during the Labour Governments, 1964-70: NATO Strategy, Détente and European Integration (2008)
  • Major, Patrick. "Britain and Germany: A Love-Hate Relationship?" German History, October 2008, Vol. 26 Issue 4, pp 457–468
  • Massie, Robert K. Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the Coming of the Great War (1991)
  • Milton, Richard. Best of Enemies: Britain and Germany: 100 Years of Truth and Lies (2004), popular history covers 1845-1945 focusing on publkic opinion and propaganda; 368pp
excerpt and text search
  • Neville P. Hitler and Appeasement: The British Attempt to Prevent the Second World War (2005)
  • Noakes, Jeremy et al. Britain and Germany in Europe, 1949–1990 (Oxford, 2002).
  • Padfield, Peter. The Great Naval Race: Anglo-German Naval Rivalry 1900-1914 (2005)
  • Palmer, Alan. Crowned Cousins: The Anglo-German Royal Connection (London, 1985).
  • Ramsden, John. Don’t Mention the War: The British and the Germans since 1890 (London, 2006).
  • Rüger, Jan. The Great Naval Game: Britain and Germany in the Age of Empire (Cambridge, 2007).
  • Taylor, A.J.P. Struggle for Mastery of Europe: 1848-1918 (1954), comprehensive survey of diplomacy
  • Turner, Ian D., ed. Reconstruction in Postwar Germany: British Occupation Policy and the Western Zones, 1945–1955 (Oxford, 1992).
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Last modified on 20 April 2013, at 17:32