Wikipedia

Acetobacter aceti

Acetobacter aceti, a Gram-negative bacterium that moves using its peritrichous flagella, was discovered when Louis Pasteur proved it to be the cause of conversion of ethanol to acetic acid in 1864. Its bacterial motility plays an important role in the formation of biofilms, intricate communities where A. aceti cells aggregate and collaborate, further enhancing their ability to metabolize ethanol and produce acetic acid.[1] Widely distributed in various environmental niches, this benign microorganism thrives in habitats abundant in fermentable sugars, such as flowers, fruits, honey, water, and soil, present wherever sugar fermentation occurs.[2] A. aceti grows best within temperatures ranging from 25 to 30 degrees Celsius, with an upper limit of 35 degrees Celsius, and in slightly acidic conditions with a pH between 5.5 to 6.3.[2] A. aceti has long been used in the fermentation industry efficiently producing acetic acid from alcohol as an obligate aerobe dependent on oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor. [3]The microorganism's ability to thrive in environments rich in fermentable sugars shows its potential as an organism for studying microbial metabolism and adaptation.

Acetobacter aceti
Scientific classification
Domain:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Pseudomonadota
Class:
Alphaproteobacteria
Order:
Rhodospirillales
Family:
Acetobacteraceae
Genus:
Acetobacter
Species:
A. aceti
Binomial name
Acetobacter aceti
(Pasteur 1864) Beijerinck 1898

Besides its ecological role, A. aceti holds a significant economic value, particularly in vinegar production, where it catalyzes the conversion of ethanol in wine or cider into acetic acid.[1] The acetic acid it generates is used in the manufacturing of acetate rayon, plastics production, rubber production, and photographic chemicals. A. aceti, classified as an acidophile, able to survive in acidic environments, possesses an acidified cytoplasm which provides most proteins in its genome with acid stability, making it an interesting study which explains the mechanisms by which proteins acquire acid resistance. In addition to its industrial applications, A. aceti's unique metabolic capabilities have gained attention in biotech research. Studies have found that it has the potential to be a key player in the production of bio-based chemicals and renewable materials, using its enzymatic machinery for sustainable manufacturing processes. Acetobacter aceti is a multifaceted organism with ecological, industrial, and biotechnological significance, showing its pivotal role in metabolism and economic value.[2]

History edit

The history of Acetobacter aceti is intertwined with the history of vinegar production and microbial fermentation. The production of vinegar, which come from fermented fruits or grains, dates back thousands of years. Ancient civilization have used vinegar for medicinal and cooking purposes. As time went on, people paid more and more attention to the process of fermentation, which converts sugars into alcohol and then into vinegar in the presence of oxygen. In the late 19th century, Martinus Beijerinck (Dutch microbiologist) isolated various bacteria involved in vinegar production, specifically the genus Acetobacter.[4] In the early 20th century, scientist Louis Pasteur's research identified the role of Acetobacter aceti in the conversion of alcohol to acetic acid. Today, A. aceti is recognized as a species within the genus Acetobacter, belonging to the family Acetobacteraceae in the class Alphaproteobacteria.[5] Research on A. aceti has expanded to explore their biotechnological applications beyond vinegar production including biofuel production, bioremediation, food fermentation, and synthesis of biopolymers.[6]

Genetics edit

Acetobacter Aceti belongs to the family Acetobacteraceae which is comprised of two genera termed Acetobacter and Gluconobacter. [7]Acetobacter oxidizes ethanol to acetic acid while Gluconobacter uses solely glucose for its metabolic processes. Many sequenced strains of A. aceti, including NBRC 14818 and JCM20276, have been shown to contain a genome consisting of one chromosome and four plasmid/phages.[4] [8]The A. aceti strain NBRC 14818 contains 3,596,270 base pairs in its chromosome.[4]

Growth edit

Oxidation is used to stimulate the growth of the A. aceti. Samples of the bacteria are placed in a few silicone tubes. These tubes are permeable to oxygen, after which they are left in a region warmer than the typical room temperature and cultured. Acetobacter aceti struggles to grow with a carbon source of glucose. However, is grows well on an ethanol medium.[9] Ethanol is a very important compound for the growth of A. aceti. The oxidation of ethanol leads to acetate which lowers the expression of TCA cycle genes. However, this changed once ethanol was added because acetate began to become consumed which led to a unregulation of the glyoxylate pathway upon ethanol oxidation. This means that ethanol is important as a carbon source for the upregulation of metabolic pathways.[10]

Metabolism edit

A. aceti is a unique microorganism because of its ability to survive in high concentrations of acetic acid.[11] This microbe utilizes a two-step oxidation of ethanol to acetate. Ethanol is oxidized by membrane-bound proteins called pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase (PQQ- dependent ADH) to produce acetyl aldehyde. These proteins reside within the periplasm. Acetyl aldehyde is then oxidized by the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase [12] to produce acetate. Acetate is then converted into acetyl-CoA by either the enzyme acetyl-CoA synthetase or mediated by phosphotransacetylase and acetate kinase. Three acetyl-CoA are then synthesized into citrate which are used in the the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle). However, the efflux pump drives acetate out of the microbe, increasing growth medium vinegar concentration. A. aceti strains can tolerate acetic acid concentrations of 5 to 20 percent outside of the cell.[13]

Since, A. aceti utilizes the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) two molecules of carbon dioxide are produced during the oxidation of isocitrate to 2-Oxoglutarate to succinyl-CoA.[14]

As A. aceti accumulates acetate in the presence of ethanol because of incomplete oxidation,[15] catalyzed by the membrane-bound protein pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase (PQQ-dependent ADH), acetate is also used as a carbon and energy source by the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) after ethanol is depleted. Furthermore, the oxidation of ethanol into acetate leads into the creation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) because of oxidative phosphorylation. Notably, when ethanol is incompletely oxidized by A. aceti, it represses the TCA cycle in A. aceti and is used as an energy source and the TCA cycle then functions to synthesize cell materials.[16] After the acetic acid fermentation, oxygen becomes the final electron acceptor and becomes apart of the proton motive force that is needed for energy production through ATP synthase.[17]

Industrial use edit

Acetic acid production edit

A. aceti is used for the mass production of acetic acid, the main component in vinegar. During the fermentation process of vinegar production, it is used to act on wines and ciders resulting in vinegar with acetic acid. It can be converted by a silicone tube reactor, which aids the fermentation process with oxidation. A. aceti is widely used in industrial vinegar production due to its ability to produce high concentrations of acetic acid from ethanol while also having a high resistance to acetic acid.[18]

Diabetes edit

Diabetes is a significant health issue affecting millions of Americans, prompting researchers to find effective treatments and potential cures. A. aceti is emerging as a candidate due to its potential role in controlling diabetes. Probiotics have been identified as a therapeutic method for diabetes treatment with recent studies identifying chromium and zinc rich strains of A. aceti to enhance the hypoglycemic effects of the probiotic. An experiment was conducted in which researchers compared the efficacy of A. aceti to metformin, a common treatment for patients with type 2 diabetes. The result showed that A. aceti not only increased insulin secretion but also contributed to the repair of damaged pancreatic tissue, showing its potential as a valuable therapeutic method in diabetes treatment. [19]

Cellulose production edit

Cellulose is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which can be found in the cell walls of plants, algae, fungi, and some bacteria. Through its production of acetic acid and oxidation of ethanol, A. aceti plays a crucial role in synthesis of bacterial cellulose. Bacterial cellulose is unique from plant cellulose due to its highly pure and crystalline structure. This bacterial cellulose is valued for its high purity, strength, and unique properties. It is used for production of biofilms, medical dressings, and food products.[20][21]

Biofilm formation edit

A. aceti is typically known as corrosive as it produces acetic acid which causes severe corrosion of copper and steel in many industrial settings. However, it has also been discovered that when in a solution with ethanol, a biofilm of A. aceti forms and can be used as a protective layer to prevent corrosion of carbon and steel. This is important because if A. aceti biofilms are used to reduce microbiologically induced corrosion, industrial profits will increase.[22]

Safety edit

A. aceti is not known to be a human pathogen and is generally regarded as safe to handle in industrial settings. Human skin does not provide the bacteria with the optimal conditions for it to grow, reducing the risk of infection or adverse effects from direct contact. The optimum growth of A. aceti is lower than the temperature found in the human body making it unlikely for it to inhabit both the human body and animals in general allowing it to be listed on the FDA's list of GRAS (generally recognized as safe) microorganisms.

While A. aceti poses minimal risk to humans, it may have implications for the environment, particularly in agriculture. Some evidence suggests that A. aceti can be harmful to plants and other flora potentially disrupting natural ecosystems. A. aceti's metabolic activity and production of acetic acid may influence soil pH and microbial communities, which can impact soil health and ecosystem dynamics. A. aceti has also been found to cause rotting of fruits such as apples and pears. So, while A. aceti is considered safe for human contact, its interactions with the environment warrant further research to understand its potential ecological impacts and inform sustainable management practices.[23][24]

References edit

  1. ^ a b Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil; Gomes, Rodrigo José; Borges, Maria de Fátima; Embrapa Tropical Agroindustry, CEP 60511-110, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Rosa, Morsyleide de Freitas; Embrapa Tropical Agroindustry, CEP 60511-110, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Castro-Gómez, Raúl Jorge Hernan; Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil; Spinosa, Wilma Aparecida; Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil (2018). "Acetic Acid Bacteria in the Food Industry: Systematics, Characteristics and Applications" (PDF). Food Technology and Biotechnology. 56 (2): 139–151. doi:10.17113/ftb.56.02.18.5593. PMC 6117990. PMID 30228790.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b c Raspor, Peter; Goranovič, Dušan (January 2008). "Biotechnological Applications of Acetic Acid Bacteria". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 28 (2): 101–124. doi:10.1080/07388550802046749. ISSN 0738-8551. PMID 18568850.
  3. ^ Sengun, Ilkin Yucel; Karabiyikli, Seniz (May 2011). "Importance of acetic acid bacteria in food industry". Food Control. 22 (5): 647–656. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.11.008.
  4. ^ a b c Gomes, Rodrigo José; Borges, Maria de Fátima; Rosa, Morsyleide de Freitas; Castro-Gómez, Raúl Jorge Hernan (2018). "Acetic Acid Bacteria in the Food Industry: Systematics, Characteristics and Applications" (PDF). Food Technology and Biotechnology. 56 (2): 139–151. doi:10.17113/ftb.56.02.18.5593. PMC 6117990. PMID 30228790.
  5. ^ "National Center for Biotechnology Information". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-19.
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  10. ^ Sakurai, Kenta; Arai, Hiroyuki; Ishii, Masaharu; Igarashi, Yasuo (March 2012). "Changes in the gene expression profile of Acetobacter aceti during growth on ethanol". Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 113 (3): 343–348. doi:10.1016/j.jbiosc.2011.11.005. PMID 22153844.
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  12. ^ Arai, Hiroyuki; Sakurai, Kenta; Ishii, Masaharu (2016), Matsushita, Kazunobu; Toyama, Hirohide; Tonouchi, Naoto; Okamoto-Kainuma, Akiko (eds.), "Metabolic Features of Acetobacter aceti", Acetic Acid Bacteria: Ecology and Physiology, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 255–271, doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55933-7_12, ISBN 978-4-431-55933-7, retrieved 2024-02-29
  13. ^ Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil; Gomes, Rodrigo José; Borges, Maria de Fátima; Embrapa Tropical Agroindustry, CEP 60511-110, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Rosa, Morsyleide de Freitas; Embrapa Tropical Agroindustry, CEP 60511-110, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil; Castro-Gómez, Raúl Jorge Hernan; Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil; Spinosa, Wilma Aparecida; Department of Food Science and Technology, State University of Londrina, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, PR, Brazil (2018). "Acetic Acid Bacteria in the Food Industry: Systematics, Characteristics and Applications" (PDF). Food Technology and Biotechnology. 56 (2). doi:10.17113/ftb.56.02.18.5593.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Arai, Hiroyuki; Sakurai, Kenta; Ishii, Masaharu (2016), Matsushita, Kazunobu; Toyama, Hirohide; Tonouchi, Naoto; Okamoto-Kainuma, Akiko (eds.), "Metabolic Features of Acetobacter aceti", Acetic Acid Bacteria, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 255–271, doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55933-7_12, ISBN 978-4-431-55931-3, retrieved 2024-04-19
  15. ^ Arai, Hiroyuki; Sakurai, Kenta; Ishii, Masaharu (2016), Matsushita, Kazunobu; Toyama, Hirohide; Tonouchi, Naoto; Okamoto-Kainuma, Akiko (eds.), "Metabolic Features of Acetobacter aceti", Acetic Acid Bacteria: Ecology and Physiology, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 255–271, doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55933-7_12, ISBN 978-4-431-55933-7, retrieved 2024-04-04
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  17. ^ Zheng, Yu; Chang, Yangang; Zhang, Renkuan; Song, Jia; Xu, Ying; Liu, Jing; Wang, Min (2018-09-01). "Two-stage oxygen supply strategy based on energy metabolism analysis for improving acetic acid production by Acetobacter pasteurianus". Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 45 (9): 781–788. doi:10.1007/s10295-018-2060-2. ISSN 1476-5535.
  18. ^ Nakano, Shigeru; Fukaya, Masahiro (June 2008). "Analysis of proteins responsive to acetic acid in Acetobacter: Molecular mechanisms conferring acetic acid resistance in acetic acid bacteria". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 125 (1): 54–59. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.05.015. PMID 17920150.
  19. ^ Huang, Yong-Yi; Qin, Xiang-Kun; Dai, Yuan-Yuan; Huang, Liang; Huang, Gan-Rong; Qin, Yan-Chun; Wei, Xian; Huang, Yan-Qiang (2022-06-15). "Preparation and hypoglycemic effects of chromium- and zinc-rich Acetobacter aceti". World Journal of Diabetes. 13 (6): 442–453. doi:10.4239/wjd.v13.i6.442. ISSN 1948-9358. PMC 9210545. PMID 35800410.
  20. ^ Okiyama, Atsushi; Shirae, Hideyuki; Kano, Hideo; Yamanaka, Shigeru (November 1992). "Bacterial cellulose I. Two-stage fermentation process for cellulose production by Acetobacter aceti". Food Hydrocolloids. 6 (5): 471–477. doi:10.1016/S0268-005X(09)80032-5.
  21. ^ Dayal, Manmeet Singh; Goswami, Navendu; Sahai, Anshuman; Jain, Vibhor; Mathur, Garima; Mathur, Ashwani (April 2013). "Effect of media components on cell growth and bacterial cellulose production from Acetobacter aceti MTCC 2623". Carbohydrate Polymers. 94 (1): 12–16. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.018. PMID 23544503.
  22. ^ France, Danielle Cook (2016-07-19). "Anticorrosive Influence of Acetobacter aceti Biofilms on Carbon Steel". Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance. 25 (9): 3580–3589. Bibcode:2016JMEP...25.3580F. doi:10.1007/s11665-016-2231-0. ISSN 1059-9495. PMC 5220434. PMID 28082824.
  23. ^ Cepec, Eva; Trček, Janja (2022-01-01). "Antimicrobial Resistance of Acetobacter and Komagataeibacter Species Originating from Vinegars". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (1): 463. doi:10.3390/ijerph19010463. hdl:20.500.12556/DKUM-85273. ISSN 1660-4601.
  24. ^ "Acetobacter aceti Final Risk Assessment | Biotechnology Program Under Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) | US EPA". corpora.tika.apache.org. Retrieved 2024-04-17.

External links edit

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