Chinese Empire

This article is about the general term. For Yuan Shikai's imperial attempt, see Empire of China (1915–1916).

The Chinese Empire (or the Empire of China) is a general term referring to the imperial realm ruled by the Emperor of China and was used as a name for China. The period when China was ruled by an emperor is known as Imperial China. It was also known as the Celestial Empire in reference to the status of the Emperor of China as the Son of Heaven in the Sinosphere. For most of its history, China was organized into various dynasties under the rule of hereditary monarchs. In 221 BC, China was unified under an emperor for the first time, establishing the first great Chinese empire. Appointed non-hereditary officials began ruling counties instead of the aristocracy, ushering in more than two millennia of Chinese dynasties or empires including the Qin, Han, Jin, Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing.

A 1890 map showing Qing China (labeled "Chinese Empire").

A 1840 map showing the Chinese Empire and Japan.

Etymology

The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century. China was previously known to Europeans as Cathay, as used in Marco Polo's book on his travels in the 13th century (during the Yuan dynasty), and it took a while for most Europeans to be convinced that Cathay referred to China or North China. As European explorers came into direct contact with the Ming dynasty of China during their voyages in the early 16th century, the European intellectual community began to update its concept of the Chinese political system. At the time some Europeans understood Ming China with the concept of "kingdom", while others understood it with the concept of "empire". In 1585, Juan González de Mendoza pointed out that Ming China was at the imperial level based on the multi-level system of the tribute system. Afterwards, Europeans like Matteo Ricci, Álvaro Semedo, Martino Martini and Philippe Couplet gradually constructed the name "Chinese Empire" by comparing the empire-kingdom level, translating European and Chinese concepts and constructing genealogies. With the transition from Ming to Qing, Europeans began to apply the name "Chinese Empire" to the Qing dynasty which became the new reigning dynasty of China. The name "Chinese Empire" (or "Empire of China") was commonly used during the period, mostly notably in the western maps published during the Qing dynasty (and the late Ming dynasty). The term was also applied to previous Chinese dynasties that were ruled by emperors.

Usages

During the late Ming dynasty

The name "Chinese Empire" first appeared in the 16th century during the late Ming dynasty. Initially however, even though Europeans called the Ming dynasty "China", the vast majority of them considered Ming China a kingdom rather than an empire. It appeared that it was Maximilianus Transylvanus who first considered China an empire in his work. However, it was such a slow process for Europeans in general to regard China as an empire rather than a kingdom. For example, even the 1615 book De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas by Matteo Ricci (one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions) more often referred to Ming China as a kingdom than an empire. By the last decade of the Ming dynasty though, increasing number of Europeans began to refer to Ming China as "Chinese Empire".

During the Qing dynasty

With the fall of the Ming dynasty, the Qing dynasty (1644-1912) became the new reigning dynasty of China. The name "Chinese Empire" (or "Empire of China") was frequently used in the western world during the period of the Qing dynasty, in both official and unofficial occasions, such as in international treaties and world maps published in the era. The Tsardom of Russia had official communications with the Qing dynasty since the 1650s, and Russian documents of the second half of the 17th century referred to Qing China as "Empire of China", "Chinese state" or the state of Bogdo. In the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk, the authoritative Latin text used the name "Imperii Sinici" (meaning "Chinese Empire") to refer to the Qing realm. While the Qing dynasty tried to maintain the traditional tributary system of China, by the 19th century however Qing China had become part of a European-style community of sovereign states. In the process, the Qing Empire's geographical boundaries were redefined by western powers and Japan through diplomacy and warfare. At that point, the Qing administration made an effort to effectively manage its borders while modernizing itself. Although Qing China lost its tributary overlordship over its East Asian and Southeast Asian neighbors (such as Korea and Vietnam), its dependencies in Inner Asia were internalized and integrated into China's imperial dominion as accepted by the western countries. Throughout the 19th century, western cartographers commonly included Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, along with China proper (as separated by lines) as part of the "Chinese Empire" in the maps published. Yet in the last decade of the Qing dynasty, maps published in China caught up with Western cartography, and China's Inner Asian frontiers were enclosed by fixed international boundaries and not separated from China proper by special borderlines in these maps.

General history

Approximate territorial extent of the various dynasties and states in Chinese history.

While the term "Chinese Empire" was often used to specifically mean the Ming or the Qing empire during the existence of the Ming and Qing dynasties, it could also refer to other Chinese imperial dynasties in the past in general, as an alternative name for Imperial China. China was unified under an emperor for the first time in 221BC, and consecutive imperial dynasties or empires had ruled China since then.

Originally emerged as a loose collection of various Han Chinese-speaking entities during the Warring States period, the Qin's wars of unification brought most of the Huaxia realm into one single dynasty, establishing Qin as the first imperial dynasty in 221 BC, the year where the first Chinese empire was established. Imperial China would continue to expand even after the collapse of the Qin dynasty, with the Han dynasty established itself with unprecedented expansion in the north, south and west. It would be the Tang dynasty four centuries later that China really achieved the golden age of its imperial realm, where China became the world's most powerful economic, political and military power, a status which China would hold until the 8th century, along with its territory spanned from Central Asia, Northeast Asia and partial Southeast Asia until being put to bed by the An Lushan rebellion. Imperial China marked its revival under the Mongol-based Yuan dynasty, in which Inner Asian territories like Tibet and Mongolia were incorporated. The Qing dynasty, founded three centuries after the fall of Yuan, laid ground to most of China's modern border today with its expansion into Inner Asia.

Following the 1911 Revolution, the Qing monarchy was abolished a year later, thus put an end to the era of Imperial China following the imperial decree issuing abdication of the Xuantong Emperor. Yuan Shikai attempted to restore the Chinese imperial rule three years later, with himself as the Emperor, but it was put to bed by the lack of popular support for the restoration of the monarchy.

See also

• Celestial Empire
• Emperor of China
• Names of China
• Tributary system of China

References

External links

• First Historical Archives of China
• Second Historical Archives of China
• Chinese History at the Columbia University
• Chinese Studies in History